A wonderful item for anyone who loved the Queen It would be a super addition to any collection, excellent display, practical piece or authentic period prop. This once belonged to my Grand Mother and she kept in a display cabinet for many years, but when she died it was placed in a box for storage. I Decided to have a clear out and I hope it will find a good home In Very good condition for over 50 years old Comes from a pet and smoke free home Sorry about the poor quality photos. They don't do the coin justice which looks a lot better in real life Click Here to Check out my Other Vintage Items & Coins Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 1,200 Satisfied Customers I have over 10 years of Ebay Selling Experience - So Why Not Treat Yourself? 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Thanks for Looking and Hope to deal soon :) I have sold items to coutries such as Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL) * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia * Cuba * Curaçao (NL) * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * 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Miami, Ho Chi Minh City, Madrid, Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon oil portrait of Queen Elizabeth at half length Portrait by Richard Stone, 1986 Queen consort of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions Tenure 11 December 1936 – 6 February 1952 Coronation 12 May 1937 Empress consort of India Tenure 11 December 1936 – 15 August 1947[a] Born Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon[b] 4 August 1900 Hitchin or London, England, United Kingdom Died 30 March 2002 (aged 101) Royal Lodge, Windsor, Berkshire, England Burial 9 April 2002 King George VI Memorial Chapel, St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle Spouse George VI (m. 1923; died 1952) Issue Elizabeth II Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon House Bowes-Lyon Father Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne Mother Cecilia Cavendish-Bentinck Signature Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon's signature Elizabeth
Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon[b] (4 August 1900 – 30 March 2002) was
Queen of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British
Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 to 6 February 1952 as the wife of
King George VI. She was concurrently the last Empress of India until the
British Raj was dissolved in August 1947. After her husband died, she
was known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother,[2] to avoid confusion
with her daughter, Queen Elizabeth II. Born into a family of
British nobility, Elizabeth came to prominence in 1923 when she married
the Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. The
couple and their daughters Elizabeth and Margaret embodied traditional
ideas of family and public service.[3] The Duchess undertook a variety
of public engagements and became known for her consistently cheerful
countenance.[4] In 1936, Elizabeth's husband unexpectedly became
king when his older brother, Edward VIII, abdicated in order to marry
the American divorcée Wallis Simpson. Elizabeth then became queen
consort. She accompanied her husband on diplomatic tours to France and
North America before the start of the Second World War. During the war,
her seemingly indomitable spirit provided moral support to the British
public. After the war, her husband's health deteriorated, and she was
widowed at the age of 51. Her elder daughter, aged 25, became the new
queen. After the death of Queen Mary in 1953, Elizabeth was
viewed as the matriarch of the British royal family. In her later years,
she was a consistently popular member of the family, even at times when
other royals were suffering from low levels of public approval.[5] She
continued an active public life until just a few months before her death
at the age of 101, seven weeks after the death of her younger daughter,
Princess Margaret. Early life Elizabeth Angela Marguerite
Bowes-Lyon was the youngest daughter and the ninth of ten children of
Claude Bowes-Lyon, Lord Glamis (later the 14th Earl of Strathmore and
Kinghorne in the Peerage of Scotland), and his wife, Cecilia
Cavendish-Bentinck. Her mother was descended from British Prime Minister
William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, and Governor-General
of India Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley, who was the elder
brother of another prime minister, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of
Wellington.[c] Elizabeth in 1909 The location of Elizabeth's
birth remains uncertain, but reputedly she was born either in her
parents' Westminster home at Belgrave Mansions, Grosvenor Gardens, or in
a horse-drawn ambulance on the way to a hospital.[8] Other possible
locations include Forbes House in Ham, London, the home of her maternal
grandmother, Louisa Scott.[9] Her birth was registered at Hitchin,
Hertfordshire,[10] near the Strathmores' English country house, St
Paul's Walden Bury, which was also given as her birthplace in the census
the following year.[11] She was christened there on 23 September 1900,
in the local parish church, All Saints. Elizabeth spent much of
her childhood at St Paul's Walden and at Glamis Castle, the Earl's
ancestral home in Scotland. She was educated at home by a governess
until the age of eight, and was fond of field sports, ponies and
dogs.[12] When she started school in London, she astonished her teachers
by precociously beginning an essay with two Greek words from Xenophon's
Anabasis. Her best subjects were literature and scripture. After
returning to private education under a German Jewish governess, Käthe
Kübler, she passed the Oxford Local Examination with distinction at age
thirteen.[13] At a charity sale event in 1915 On Elizabeth's
fourteenth birthday, Britain declared war on Germany. Four of her
brothers served in the army. Her elder brother, Fergus, an officer in
the Black Watch Regiment, was killed in action at the Battle of Loos in
1915. Another brother, Michael, was reported missing in action on 28
April 1917.[14] Three weeks later, the family discovered he had been
captured after being wounded. He remained in a prisoner of war camp for
the rest of the war. Glamis was turned into a convalescent home for
wounded soldiers, which Elizabeth helped to run. She was particularly
instrumental in organising the rescue of the castle's contents during a
serious fire on 16 September 1916.[15] One of the soldiers she treated
wrote in her autograph book that she was to be "Hung, drawn, &
quartered ... Hung in diamonds, drawn in a coach and four, and quartered
in the best house in the land."[16] On 5 November 1916, she was
confirmed at St John's Scottish Episcopal Church in Forfar.[17] Marriage Main article: Wedding of Prince Albert, Duke of York, and Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon Elizabeth and Albert on their wedding day, 26 April 1923 Prince
Albert, Duke of York—"Bertie" to the family—was the second son of King
George V. He initially proposed to Elizabeth in 1921, but she turned him
down, being "afraid never, never again to be free to think, speak and
act as I feel I really ought to".[18] When he declared he would marry no
other, his mother, Queen Mary, visited Glamis to see for herself the
girl who had stolen her son's heart. She became convinced that Elizabeth
was "the one girl who could make Bertie happy", but nevertheless
refused to interfere.[19] At the same time, Elizabeth was courted by
James Stuart, Albert's equerry, until he left the Prince's service for a
better-paid job in the American oil business.[20] In February
1922, Elizabeth was a bridesmaid at the wedding of Albert's sister,
Princess Mary, to Viscount Lascelles.[21] The following month, Albert
proposed again, but she refused him once more.[22] Eventually in January
1923, Elizabeth agreed to marry Albert, despite her misgivings about
royal life.[23] Albert's freedom in choosing Elizabeth, not a member of a
royal family, though the daughter of a peer, was considered a gesture
in favour of political modernisation; previously, princes were expected
to marry princesses from other royal families.[24] They selected a
platinum engagement ring featuring a Kashmir sapphire with two diamonds
adorning its sides.[25] They married on 26 April 1923, at
Westminster Abbey. Unexpectedly,[26] Elizabeth laid her bouquet at the
Tomb of the Unknown Warrior on her way into the abbey,[27] in memory of
her brother Fergus.[28] Elizabeth became styled Her Royal Highness The
Duchess of York.[29] Following a wedding breakfast at Buckingham Palace
prepared by chef Gabriel Tschumi, the new Duchess and her husband
honeymooned at Polesden Lacey, a manor house in Surrey owned by the
wealthy socialite and friend Margaret Greville. They then went to
Scotland, where she caught "unromantic" whooping cough.[30] Duchess of York (1923–1936) Portrait by Philip de László, 1925 After
a successful royal visit to Northern Ireland in July 1924, the Labour
government agreed that Albert and Elizabeth could tour East Africa from
December 1924 to April 1925.[31] The Labour government was defeated by
the Conservatives in a general election in November (which Elizabeth
described as "marvellous" to her mother)[32] and the Governor-General of
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Sir Lee Stack, was assassinated three weeks
later. Despite this, the tour went ahead, and they visited Aden, Kenya,
Uganda, and Sudan, but Egypt was avoided because of political
tensions.[33] In Queensland, 1927 Albert had a stammer, which
affected his ability to deliver speeches, and after October 1925,
Elizabeth assisted in helping him through the therapy devised by Lionel
Logue, an episode portrayed in the 2010 film The King's Speech. In 1926,
the couple had their first child, Princess Elizabeth—"Lilibet" to the
family—who would later become Queen Elizabeth II. Albert and Elizabeth,
without their child, travelled to Australia to open Parliament House in
Canberra in 1927.[34] She was, in her own words, "very miserable at
leaving the baby".[35] Their journey by sea took them via Jamaica, the
Panama Canal and the Pacific; Elizabeth fretted constantly over her baby
back in Britain, but their journey was a public relations success.[36]
She charmed the public in Fiji when, as she was shaking hands with a
long line of official guests, a stray dog walked in on the ceremony; she
shook its paw as well.[37] In New Zealand she fell ill with a cold and
missed some engagements, but enjoyed the local fishing[38] in the Bay of
Islands accompanied by Australian sports fisherman Harry Andreas.[39]
On the return journey, via Mauritius, the Suez Canal, Malta and
Gibraltar, their transport, HMS Renown, caught fire and they prepared to
abandon ship before the fire was brought under control.[40] The
couple's second daughter, Princess Margaret, was born at Glamis Castle
in 1930.[41] The close family lived at 145 Piccadilly.[42] Queen consort (1936–1952) On
20 January 1936, George V died and his eldest son, Edward, Prince of
Wales, became King Edward VIII. Just months into Edward's reign, his
decision to marry the American divorcée Wallis Simpson caused a
constitutional crisis that resulted in his abdication. Elizabeth's
husband Albert, reluctantly became King in his brother's place on 11
December 1936 under the regnal name of George VI. George VI and
Elizabeth were crowned King and Queen of the United Kingdom and the
British Dominions, and Emperor and Empress of India in Westminster Abbey
on 12 May 1937, the date previously scheduled for Edward VIII.
Elizabeth's crown was made of platinum and was set with the Koh-i-Noor
diamond.[43] Edward and Simpson married and became the Duke and
Duchess of Windsor, but while Edward was a Royal Highness, George VI
withheld the style from the Duchess, a decision that Elizabeth
supported.[44] Elizabeth was later quoted as referring to the Duchess as
"that woman",[45] and the Duchess referred to Elizabeth as "Cookie",
because of her supposed resemblance to a fat Scots cook.[5] Claims that
Elizabeth remained embittered towards the Duchess were denied by her
close friends; the Duke of Grafton wrote that she "never said anything
nasty about the Duchess of Windsor, except to say she really hadn't got a
clue what she was dealing with".[46] Overseas visits Portrait by Sir Gerald Kelly. Her crown is on the left. In
summer 1938, a state visit to France by the King and Queen was
postponed for three weeks because of the death of the Queen's mother,
Lady Strathmore. In two weeks, Norman Hartnell created an all-white
trousseau for the Queen, who could not wear colours as she was still in
mourning.[47] The visit was designed to bolster Anglo-French solidarity
in the face of aggression from Nazi Germany.[48] The French press
praised the demeanour and charm of the royal couple during the delayed
but successful visit, augmented by Hartnell's wardrobe.[49] Nevertheless,
Nazi aggression continued, and the government prepared for war. After
the Munich Agreement of 1938 appeared to forestall the advent of armed
conflict, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was invited
onto the balcony of Buckingham Palace with the King and Queen to receive
acclamation from a crowd of well-wishers.[50] While broadly popular
among the general public, Chamberlain's policy towards Hitler was the
subject of some opposition in the House of Commons, which led historian
John Grigg to describe the King's behaviour in associating himself so
prominently with a politician as "the most unconstitutional act by a
British sovereign in the present century".[51] However, historians argue
that the King only ever followed ministerial advice and acted as he was
constitutionally bound to do.[52] King George VI and Queen Elizabeth at Toronto City Hall, 1939 In
May and June 1939, Elizabeth and her husband toured Canada from coast
to coast and back, the first time a reigning monarch had toured
Canada.[53] They also visited the United States, spending time with
President Roosevelt at the White House and his Hudson Valley
estate.[54][55][56][57] U.S. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt said that
Elizabeth was "perfect as a Queen, gracious, informed, saying the right
thing & kind but a little self-consciously regal".[58] The tour was
designed to bolster trans-Atlantic support in the event of war, and to
affirm Canada's status as an independent kingdom sharing with Britain
the same person as monarch.[59][60][61][62] According to an
often-told story, during one of the earliest of the royal couple's
repeated encounters with the crowds, a Boer War veteran asked Elizabeth,
"Are you Scots or are you English?" She replied, "I am a Canadian!"[63]
Their reception by the Canadian and U.S. public was extremely
enthusiastic,[64] and largely dissipated any residual feeling that
George and Elizabeth were a lesser substitute for Edward.[65] Elizabeth
told Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, "that tour
made us",[66] and she returned to Canada frequently both on official
tours and privately.[67] Second World War Eleanor Roosevelt (centre), King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in London, 23 October 1942 During
the Second World War, the King and Queen became symbols of the fight
against fascism.[68] Shortly after the declaration of war, The Queen's
Book of the Red Cross was conceived. Fifty authors and artists
contributed to the book, which was fronted by Cecil Beaton's portrait of
the Queen and was sold in aid of the Red Cross.[69] She also broadcast
to the nation in an attempt to comfort families during the evacuation of
children and the mobilisation of fighting-age men.[70] Elizabeth
publicly refused to leave London or send the children to Canada, even
during the Blitz, when she was advised by the Cabinet to do so. She
declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave the King. And
the King will never leave."[71] Elizabeth visited troops,
hospitals, factories, and parts of Britain that were targeted by the
German Luftwaffe, in particular the East End near London's docks. Her
visits initially provoked hostility; rubbish was thrown at her and the
crowds jeered, in part because she wore expensive clothes that served to
alienate her from people suffering the deprivations of war.[5] She
explained that if the public came to see her they would wear their best
clothes, so she should reciprocate in kind; Norman Hartnell dressed her
in gentle colours and avoided black to represent "the rainbow of
hope".[72] When Buckingham Palace itself took several hits during the
height of the bombing, Elizabeth said, "I'm glad we've been bombed. It
makes me feel I can look the East End in the face."[73] The Queen and Princess Elizabeth talk to paratroopers preparing for D-Day, 19 May 1944 Though
the King and Queen spent the working day at Buckingham Palace, partly
for security and family reasons they stayed at night at Windsor Castle
about 20 miles (32 km) west of central London with the Princesses
Elizabeth and Margaret. The Palace had lost much of its staff to the
army, and most of the rooms were shut.[74] The windows were shattered by
bomb blasts, and had to be boarded up.[75] During the "Phoney War" the
Queen was given revolver training because of fears of imminent
invasion.[76] Adolf Hitler is said to have called her "the most
dangerous woman in Europe" because he viewed her popularity as a threat
to German interests.[77] However, before the war both she and her
husband, like most of Parliament and the British public, had supported
appeasement and Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, believing after the
experience of the First World War that war had to be avoided at all
costs. After the resignation of Chamberlain, the King asked Winston
Churchill to form a government. Although the King was initially
suspicious of Churchill's character and motives, in due course both the
King and Queen came to respect and admire him.[78][79] Post-war years In
the 1945 British general election, Churchill's Conservative Party was
soundly defeated by the Labour Party of Clement Attlee. Elizabeth's
political views were rarely disclosed,[80] but a letter she wrote in
1947 described Attlee's "high hopes of a socialist heaven on earth" as
fading and presumably describes those who voted for him as "poor people,
so many half-educated and bemused. I do love them."[81] Woodrow Wyatt
thought her "much more pro-Conservative" than other members of the royal
family,[82] but she later told him, "I like the dear old Labour
Party."[83] She also told the Duchess of Grafton, "I love
communists."[84] Southern Rhodesian stamp celebrating the 1947 royal tour of Southern Africa During
the 1947 royal tour of South Africa, Elizabeth's serene public
behaviour was broken, exceptionally, when she rose from the royal car to
strike an admirer with her umbrella because she had mistaken his
enthusiasm for hostility.[85] The 1948 royal tour of Australia and New
Zealand was postponed because of the King's declining health. In March
1949, he had a successful operation to improve the circulation in his
right leg.[86] In summer 1951, Elizabeth and her daughters fulfilled the
King's public engagements in his place. In September, he was diagnosed
with lung cancer.[87] After a lung resection, he appeared to recover,
but the delayed trip to Australia and New Zealand was altered so that
Princess Elizabeth and her husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, went in the
King and Queen's place, in January 1952.[88] George VI died in his sleep
on 6 February 1952 while Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh
were in Kenya on a Commonwealth tour, and with George's death his
daughter immediately became Queen Elizabeth II.[89] Queen mother (1952–2002) Widowhood As guest of honor at the Columbia University Bicentennial in New York City, October 1954 Shortly
after George VI's death, Elizabeth began to be styled as Her Majesty
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother because the normal style for the widow
of a king, "Queen Elizabeth", would have been too similar to the style
of her elder daughter, Queen Elizabeth II.[90] Popularly, she became the
"Queen Mother" or the "Queen Mum".[91] She was devastated by her
husband's death and retired to Scotland. However, after a meeting with
the prime minister, Winston Churchill, she broke her retirement and
resumed her public duties.[92] Eventually she became just as busy as
queen mother as she had been as queen consort. In July 1953, she
undertook her first overseas visit since the funeral when she visited
the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland with Princess Margaret. She
laid the foundation stone of the University College of Rhodesia and
Nyasaland—the current University of Zimbabwe.[93] Upon her return to the
region in 1957, Elizabeth was inaugurated as the college's president,
and attended other events that were deliberately designed to be
multi-racial.[94] During her daughter's extensive tour of the
Commonwealth over 1953–54, Elizabeth acted as a counsellor of state and
looked after her grandchildren, Charles and Anne.[95] In February 1959,
she visited Kenya and Uganda.[96][97] The Queen Mother arriving at Walker Naval Yard, June 1961 Elizabeth
oversaw the restoration of the remote Castle of Mey, on the north coast
of Scotland, which she used to "get away from everything"[98] for three
weeks in August and ten days in October each year.[99] She developed
her interest in horse racing, particularly steeplechasing, which had
been inspired by the amateur jockey Lord Mildmay in 1949.[100] She owned
the winners of approximately 500 races. Her distinctive colours of blue
with buff stripes were carried by horses such as Special Cargo, the
winner of the 1984 Whitbread Gold Cup, and Devon Loch, which
spectacularly halted just short of the winning post at the 1956 Grand
National[101] and whose jockey Dick Francis later had a successful
career as the writer of racing-themed detective stories. Peter Cazalet
was her trainer for over 20 years. Although (contrary to rumour) she
never placed bets, she did have the racing commentaries piped direct to
her London residence, Clarence House, so she could follow the
races.[102] As an art collector, she purchased works by Claude Monet,
Augustus John and Peter Carl Fabergé, among others.[103] In
February 1964, Elizabeth had an emergency appendectomy, which led to the
postponement of a planned tour of Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji
until 1966.[104] She recuperated during a Caribbean cruise aboard the
royal yacht, Britannia.[105] In December 1966, she underwent an
operation to remove a tumour, after she was diagnosed with colon cancer.
Contrary to rumours which subsequently spread, she did not have a
colostomy.[106][107] She was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1984 and a
lump was removed from her breast. Her bouts with cancer were never made
public during her lifetime.[108] At Dover Castle, portrait by Allan Warren During
her widowhood she continued to travel extensively, including on over
forty official visits overseas.[109] In 1975, Elizabeth visited Iran at
the invitation of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The British ambassador and
his wife, Anthony and Sheila Parsons, noted how the Iranians were
bemused by her habit of speaking to everyone regardless of status or
importance, and hoped the Shah's entourage would learn from the visit to
pay more attention to ordinary people.[110] Between 1976 and 1984, she
made annual summer visits to France,[111] which were among 22 private
trips to continental Europe between 1963 and 1992.[112] In 1982,
Elizabeth was rushed to hospital when a fish bone became stuck in her
throat, and had an operation to remove it. Being a keen angler, she
calmly joked afterwards, "The salmon have got their own back."[113]
Similar incidents occurred at Balmoral in August 1986, when she was
hospitalised at Aberdeen Royal Infirmary overnight but no operation was
needed,[114] and in May 1993, when she was admitted to the Infirmary for
surgery under general anaesthetic.[115] In 1987, Elizabeth was
criticised when it emerged that two of her nieces, Katherine and Nerissa
Bowes-Lyon, had both been committed to the Royal Earlswood Asylum for
Mental Defectives, a psychiatric hospital in Redhill, Surrey in 1941,
because they had severe learning disabilities.[116] However, Burke's
Peerage had listed the sisters as dead, apparently because their mother,
Fenella (Elizabeth's sister-in-law), "was 'extremely vague' when it
came to filling in forms and might not have completed the paperwork for
the family entry correctly".[117] When Nerissa died in 1986, her grave
was originally marked with a plastic tag and a serial number. Elizabeth
said that the news of their institutionalisation came as a surprise to
her.[118] Centenarian At Banting House during a royal visit to Canada, 1989 In
her later years, Elizabeth became known for her longevity. Her 90th
birthday—4 August 1990—was celebrated by a parade on 27 June that
involved many of the 300 organisations of which she was a patron.[119]
In 1995, she attended events commemorating the end of the war fifty
years before, and had two operations: one to remove a cataract in her
left eye, and one to replace her right hip.[120] In 1998, her left hip
was replaced after it was broken when she slipped and fell during a
visit to Sandringham stables.[121] Elizabeth's 100th birthday was
celebrated in a number of ways: a parade that celebrated the highlights
of her life included contributions from Sir Norman Wisdom and Sir John
Mills;[122] her image appeared on a special commemorative £20 note
issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland;[123] and she attended a lunch at
the Guildhall, London, at which George Carey, the Archbishop of
Canterbury, accidentally attempted to drink her glass of wine. Her quick
admonition of "That's mine!" caused widespread amusement.[124] In
November 2000, she broke her collarbone in a fall that kept her
recuperating at home over Christmas and the New Year.[125] On 1
August 2001, Elizabeth had a blood transfusion for anaemia after
suffering from mild heat exhaustion, though she was well enough to make
her traditional appearance outside Clarence House three days later to
celebrate her 101st birthday.[126][127] Her final public engagements
included planting a cross at the Field of Remembrance on 8 November
2001;[128] a reception at the Guildhall, London, for the reformation of
the 600 Squadron, Royal Auxiliary Air Force on 15 November;[129] and
attending the re-commissioning of HMS Ark Royal on 22
November.[130][131][132] In December 2001, aged 101, Elizabeth
fractured her pelvis in a fall. Even so, she insisted on standing for
the national anthem during the memorial service for her husband on 6
February the following year.[133] Just three days later, their second
daughter Princess Margaret died. On 13 February 2002, Elizabeth fell and
cut her arm in her sitting room at Sandringham House; an ambulance and
doctor were called, and the wound was dressed.[134] She was still
determined to attend Margaret's funeral at St George's Chapel, Windsor
Castle, two days later on the Friday of that week,[135] even though the
Queen and the rest of the royal family were concerned about the journey
the Queen Mother would face to get from Norfolk to Windsor;[136] she was
also rumoured to be hardly eating. Nevertheless, she flew to Windsor by
helicopter, and so that no photographs of her in a wheelchair (which
she hated being seen in) could be taken—she insisted that she be
shielded from the press[136]—she travelled to the service in a people
carrier with blacked-out windows,[137][138] which had been previously
used by Margaret.[136][139] On 5 March 2002, Elizabeth was
present at the luncheon of the annual lawn party of the Eton Beagles,
and watched the Cheltenham Races on television; however, her health
began to deteriorate precipitously during her last weeks, after
retreating to Royal Lodge for the final time.[140] Death Main article: Death and funeral of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother The Queen Mother's funeral carriage. The coffin was draped with her personal standard, shown below. On
30 March 2002, at 15:15 GMT, Elizabeth died at the Royal Lodge,
Windsor, at the age of 101, with her surviving daughter Queen Elizabeth
II by her side.[132] She had been suffering from a chest cold since
Christmas 2001.[134] At 101 years and 238 days old she was the first
member of the British royal family to live past the age of 100. She was
the longest-living member of the British royal family at the time of her
death. Her surviving sister-in-law, Princess Alice, Duchess of
Gloucester,[141] exceeded that, dying at the age of 102 on 29 October
2004.[142] She was one of the longest-lived members of any royal
family.[143] Elizabeth grew camellias in every one of her
gardens, and before her flag-draped coffin was taken from Windsor to lie
in state at Westminster Hall, an arrangement of camellias from her own
gardens was placed on top.[144] An estimated 200,000 people over three
days filed past as she lay in state in Westminster Hall at the Palace of
Westminster.[145] Members of the household cavalry and other branches
of the armed forces stood guard at the four corners of the catafalque.
At one point, her four grandsons Prince Charles, Prince Andrew, Prince
Edward and Viscount Linley mounted the guard as a mark of respect—an
honour similar to the Vigil of the Princes at the lying in state of King
George V.[146][147] On the day of her funeral, 9 April, the
Governor General of Canada issued a proclamation asking Canadians to
honour Elizabeth's memory that day.[148] In Australia, the
Governor-General read the lesson at a memorial service held in St
Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney.[149] In London, more than a million
people filled the area outside Westminster Abbey and along the 23-mile
(37 km) route from central London to Elizabeth's final resting place in
the King George VI Memorial Chapel beside her husband and younger
daughter in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.[150] At her request,
after her funeral the wreath that had lain atop her coffin was placed on
the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior, in a gesture that echoed her
wedding-day tribute 79 years before.[151] Legacy Known for her
personal and public charm,[18] Elizabeth was one of the most popular
members of the royal family,[152] and helped to stabilise the popularity
of the monarchy as a whole.[153][154] Elizabeth's critics
included Kitty Kelley, who falsely alleged that she did not abide by the
rationing regulations during the Second World War.[155][156] This,
however, was contradicted by the official records,[157][158] and Eleanor
Roosevelt during her wartime stay at Buckingham Palace reported
expressly on the rationed food served in the Palace and the limited
bathwater that was permitted.[159][160] Claims that Elizabeth used
racist slurs to refer to black people[155] were strongly denied by Major
Colin Burgess,[161] the husband of Elizabeth Burgess, a mixed-race
secretary who accused members of Prince Charles's Household of racial
abuse.[162] Elizabeth made no public comments on race, but according to
Robert Rhodes James in private she "abhorred racial discrimination" and
decried apartheid as "dreadful".[163] Woodrow Wyatt records in his diary
that when he expressed the view that non-white countries have nothing
in common with "us", she told him, "I am very keen on the Commonwealth.
They're all like us."[164] However, she did distrust Germans; she told
Woodrow Wyatt, "Never trust them, never trust them."[165] While she may
have held such views, it has been argued that they were normal for
British people of her generation and upbringing, who had experienced two
vicious wars with Germany.[166] The King George VI and Queen
Elizabeth Memorial: A bronze statue of Elizabeth on The Mall, London,
overlooked by the statue of her husband George VI In his official
biography, William Shawcross portrays Elizabeth as a person whose
indomitable optimism, zest for life, good manners, mischievous sense of
humour, and interest in people and subjects of all kinds contributed to
her exceptional popularity and to her longevity. Sir Hugh Casson said
Elizabeth was like "a wave breaking on a rock, because although she is
sweet and pretty and charming, she also has a basic streak of toughness
and tenacity. ... when a wave breaks on a rock, it showers and sparkles
with a brilliant play of foam and droplets in the sun, yet beneath is
really hard, tough rock, fused, in her case, from strong principles,
physical courage and a sense of duty."[167] Sir Peter Ustinov described
her during a student demonstration at the University of Dundee in 1968:
As we arrived in a solemn procession the students pelted us with toilet
rolls. They kept hold of one end, like streamers at a ball, and threw
the other end. The Queen Mother stopped and picked these up as though
somebody had misplaced them. [Returning them to the students she said,]
'Was this yours? Oh, could you take it?' And it was her sang-froid and
her absolute refusal to be shocked by this, which immediately silenced
all the students. She knows instinctively what to do on those occasions.
She doesn't rise to being heckled at all; she just pretends it must be
an oversight on the part of the people doing it. The way she reacted not
only showed her presence of mind, but was so charming and so disarming,
even to the most rabid element, that she brought peace to troubled
waters.[168] Elizabeth was well known for her dry witticisms. On
hearing that Edwina Mountbatten was buried at sea, she said: "Dear
Edwina, she always liked to make a splash."[113] Accompanied by the gay
writer Sir Noël Coward at a gala, she mounted a staircase lined with
guards. Noticing Coward's eyes flicker momentarily across the soldiers,
she murmured to him: "I wouldn't if I were you, Noël; they count them
before they put them out."[169] After being advised by a
Conservative minister in the 1970s not to employ homosexuals, Elizabeth
observed that without them, "we'd have to go self-service".[169] On the
fate of a gift of a nebuchadnezzar of champagne (20 bottles' worth) even
if her family did not come for the holidays, she said, "I'll polish it
off myself."[170] Emine Saner of The Guardian suggests that with a gin
and Dubonnet at noon, red wine with lunch, a port and martini at 6 pm
and two glasses of champagne at dinner, "a conservative estimate puts
the number of alcohol units she drank at 70 a week".[171] Her lifestyle
amused journalists, particularly when it was revealed she had a
multi-million pound overdraft with Coutts Bank.[172] Elizabeth's
habits were parodied by the satirical 1980s television programme
Spitting Image.[173] This was the first satirical depiction on
television; the makers initially demurred from featuring her, fearing
that it would be considered off-limits by most of the viewing
public.[174] In the end, she was portrayed as a perpetually tipsy Beryl
Reid soundalike.[175] She was portrayed by Juliet Aubrey in Bertie and
Elizabeth, Sylvia Syms in The Queen, Natalie Dormer in W.E., Olivia
Colman in Hyde Park on Hudson, Victoria Hamilton (Seasons 1 and 2),
Marion Bailey (Seasons 3 and 4) and Marcia Warren (Season 5)[176] in The
Crown and in The King's Speech by Helena Bonham Carter, who was
nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and won a
BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for her
portrayal.[177][178] The Queen Elizabeth Way Monument in Toronto, with a bas-relief of Queen Elizabeth and King George VI The
Cunard White Star Line's RMS Queen Elizabeth was named after her. She
launched the ship on 27 September 1938 in Clydebank, Scotland.
Supposedly, the liner started to slide into the water before Elizabeth
could officially launch her, and acting sharply, she managed to smash a
bottle of Australian red over the liner's bow just before it slid out of
reach.[179] In 1954, Elizabeth sailed to New York on her namesake.[180] A
statue of Elizabeth by sculptor Philip Jackson was unveiled in front of
the George VI Memorial, off The Mall, London, on 24 February 2009,
creating the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Memorial.[181] In
March 2011, Elizabeth's eclectic musical taste was revealed when
details of her small record collection kept at the Castle of Mey were
made public. Her records included ska, local folk, Scottish reels and
the musicals Oklahoma! and The King and I, and artists such as yodeller
Montana Slim, Tony Hancock, The Goons and Noël Coward.[182] Eight
years before her death, Elizabeth had reportedly placed two-thirds of
her money (an estimated £19 million)[183] into trusts, for the benefit
of her great-grandchildren.[184] In her lifetime, she received £643,000 a
year from the Civil List, and spent an estimated £1–2 million annually
to run her household.[185] By the end of the 1990s, her overdraft was
said to be around £4 million.[183][185] She left the bulk of her estate,
estimated to be worth between £50 and £70 million, including paintings,
Fabergé eggs, jewellery, and horses, to her surviving daughter, Queen
Elizabeth II.[184][186] Under an agreement reached in 1993,[187]
property passing from monarch to monarch is exempt from inheritance tax,
as is property passing from the consort of a former monarch to the
current monarch, so a tax liability estimated at £28 million (40 percent
of the value of the estate) was not incurred.[188] The most important
pieces of art were transferred to the Royal Collection by Elizabeth
II.[184] Following her death, the Queen successfully applied to the High
Court so that details of her mother's will would be kept secret.[189]
This brought criticism from the Labour Party politicians and segments of
the public, and the Queen eventually released the outlines of her
mother's will.[186] Arms Elizabeth's coat of arms was the
royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom (in either the English or the
Scottish version) impaled with the canting arms of her father, the Earl
of Strathmore; the latter being: 1st and 4th quarters, Argent, a lion
rampant Azure, armed and langued Gules, within a double tressure
flory-counter-flory of the second (Lyon); 2nd and 3rd quarters, Ermine,
three bows stringed paleways proper (Bowes).[190] The shield is
surmounted by the imperial crown, and supported by the crowned lion of
England and a lion rampant per fess Or and Gules.[191] Coat of Arms of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon as Duchess of York.svg Coat of Arms of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon.svg Coat of arms of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (Scotland) (2).svg Coat
of arms of Elizabeth, Duchess of York (1923–1936) Coat of arms of
Queen Elizabeth Coat of arms of Queen Elizabeth (Scotland) Issue Name Birth Death Marriage Their children Their grandchildren Date Spouse Elizabeth
II 21 April 1926 8 September 2022 20 November 1947
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh Charles III William, Prince of
Wales Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex Anne, Princess Royal Peter Phillips Zara Tindall Prince Andrew, Duke of York Princess Beatrice Princess Eugenie Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and Forfar Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor James Mountbatten-Windsor, Viscount Severn Princess Margaret 21 August 1930 9 February 2002 6 May 1960 Divorced
11 July 1978 Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon David
Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon Charles Armstrong-Jones,
Viscount Linley Lady Margarita Armstrong-Jones Lady Sarah Chatto Samuel Chatto Arthur Chatto Ancestry Ancestors of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother[192] See also List of titles and honours of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother List of covers of Time magazine (1930s) Notes From
the accession of her husband to the abolition of British India by the
Indian Independence Act 1947. The title was abandoned on 22 June 1948. The
hyphenated version of the surname was used in official documents at the
time of her marriage, but the family itself tends to omit the
hyphen.[1] Lady Colin Campbell claims Elizabeth's biological
mother was the family cook, Marguerite Rodiere, by means of a surrogacy
arrangement that was not uncommon in aristocratic families at the time.
This theory is dismissed by royal biographers such as Michael Thornton
and Hugo Vickers.[6] In an earlier allegation, published by Kitty Kelley
in 1997, Elizabeth's mother is said to have been a Welsh maid.[7] References Shawcross, p. 8 "No.
55932". The London Gazette (Supplement). 4 August 2000. p. 8617. "No.
56653". The London Gazette (Supplement). 5 August 2002. p. 1. "No.
56969". The London Gazette. 16 June 2003. p. 7439. Roberts, pp. 58–59 British Screen News (1930), Our Smiling Duchess, London: British Screen Productions Moore, Lucy (31 March 2002), "A wicked twinkle and a streak of steel", The Guardian, retrieved 1 May 2009 "Queen
Mother was daughter of French cook, biography claims", The Telegraph,
31 March 2012, archived from the original on 10 January 2022 Beck, Joan (5 October 1997), "Royal Muck: $27 Down The Drain", Chicago Tribune, retrieved 16 February 2017 Weir,
Alison (1996), Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy,
Revised edition, London: Pimlico, p. 330, ISBN 978-0-7126-7448-5 Shawcross, p. 15 Civil Registration Indexes: Births, General Register Office, England and Wales. Jul–Sep 1900 Hitchin, vol. 3a, p. 667 1901 England Census, Class RG13, piece 1300, folio 170, p. 5 Vickers, p. 8 Vickers, pp. 10–14 Shawcross, p. 85 Shawcross, pp. 79–80 Forbes 1999, p. 74. "The
Earl and Countess of Forfar visit Forfar". royal.gov.uk. 1 July 2019.
Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 15 December
2021. Ezard, John (1 April 2002), "A life of legend, duty and devotion", The Guardian, p. 18 Airlie, Mabell (1962), Thatched with Gold, London: Hutchinson, p. 167 Shawcross, pp. 133–135 Shawcross, pp. 135–136 Shawcross, p. 136 Longford, p. 23 Roberts, pp. 57–58; Shawcross, p. 113 Lady
Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon's Engagement Ring, Vintage Royal Wedding, archived
from the original on 31 October 2013, retrieved 13 April 2014 Shawcross, p. 177 Vickers, p. 64 Rayment,
Sean (1 May 2011), "Royal wedding: Kate Middleton's bridal bouquet
placed at Grave of Unknown Warrior", The Telegraph, archived from the
original on 10 January 2022, retrieved 20 August 2012 Shawcross, p. 168 Letter from Albert to Queen Mary, 25 May 1923, quoted in Shawcross, p. 185. Shawcross, pp. 218–219 Letter from Elizabeth to Lady Strathmore, 1 November 1924, quoted in Shawcross, p. 217 Shawcross, pp. 221–240 t-lived Royal in history", BBC News, retrieved 30 June 2017 Alderson,
Andrew (31 October 2004), "Princess Alice, the oldest ever royal, dies
at 102", The Telegraph, archived from the original on 10 January 2022,
retrieved 30 June 2017 Coke, Hope (21 April 2021). "The top 10 longest-living royals in history". Tatler. Retrieved 4 August 2021. Bates, Stephen (3 April 2002), "Piper's farewell for Queen Mother", The Guardian, retrieved 1 May 2009 Lying-in-state, UK Parliament, retrieved 29 June 2017 Bates, Stephen (9 April 2002), "Grandsons hold vigil as public files past", The Guardian, retrieved 29 June 2017 "Charles returns for second tribute", BBC News, 9 April 2002, retrieved 29 June 2017 Government
of Canada Publications (4 April 2002), "Proclamation Requesting that
the People of Canada Set Aside April 9, 2002, as the Day on Which They
Honour the Memory of Our Dearly Beloved Mother, Her Late Majesty Queen
Elizabeth the Queen Mother, Who Passed Away on March 30, 2002" (PDF),
Canada Gazette Part II Extra, 136 (5), archived (PDF) from the original
on 14 April 2013, retrieved 16 February 2017 Memorial Service for HM Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother, Sydney Anglicans, 9 April 2002, retrieved 2 March 2011 Queues at Queen Mother vault, CNN, 10 April 2002, retrieved 1 May 2009 Mourners visit Queen Mother's vault, BBC, 10 April 2002, retrieved 1 May 2009 Monarchy/Royal Family Trends – Most Liked Members of the Royal Family, Ipsos MORI, 19 November 2012, retrieved 9 May 2015 Goldman,
Lawrence (May 2006) "Elizabeth (1900–2002)", Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/76927,
retrieved 1 May 2009 (Subscription required) Shawcross, p. 942 Kelley, Kitty (1977), The Royals, New York: Time Warner Picknett,
Lynn; Prince, Clive; Prior, Stephen; Brydon, Robert (2002), War of the
Windsors: A Century of Unconstitutional Monarchy, Mainstream Publishing,
p. 161, ISBN 978-1-84018-631-4 The memoirs of the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Woolton C.H., P.C., D.L., LL.D. (1959) London: Cassell Roberts, p. 67 Goodwin,
Doris Kearns (1995), No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt:
The Home Front in World War II, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 380 Shawcross, pp. 556–557 Burgess, Major Colin (2006), Behind Palace Doors: My Service as the Queen Mother's Equerry, John Blake Publishing, p. 233 Royal secretary loses race bias case, BBC, 7 December 2001, retrieved 1 May 2009 Notes and references 1. "No. 38330". The London Gazette. 22 June 1948. p. 3647. vte British royal consorts
George of Denmark and Norway (1707–1708) Caroline of Ansbach
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Brunswick (1820–1821) Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen (1830–1837) Albert of
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centenarians Elizabeth II Head of the Commonwealth Formal photograph of Elizabeth facing right Formal photograph, 1958 Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms (list) Reign 6 February 1952 – 8 September 2022 Coronation 2 June 1953 Predecessor George VI Successor Charles III Born Princess Elizabeth of York 21 April 1926 Mayfair, London, England Died 8 September 2022 (aged 96) Balmoral Castle, Aberdeenshire, Scotland Burial 19 September 2022 King George VI Memorial Chapel, St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle Spouse Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (m. 1947; died 2021) Issue Detail Charles III Anne, Princess Royal Prince Andrew, Duke of York Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and Forfar Names Elizabeth Alexandra Mary House Windsor Father George VI Mother Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon Signature Elizabeth's signature in black ink Elizabeth
II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; 21 April 1926 – 8 September 2022) was
Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms from 6
February 1952 until her death in 2022. She was queen regnant of 32
sovereign states during her lifetime and 15 at the time of her death.
Her reign of 70 years and 214 days was the longest of any British
monarch and the longest verified reign of any female monarch in history. Elizabeth
was born in Mayfair, London, as the first child of the Duke and Duchess
of York (later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother).
Her father acceded to the throne in 1936 upon the abdication of his
brother Edward VIII, making then-Princess Elizabeth the heir
presumptive. She was educated privately at home and began to undertake
public duties during the Second World War, serving in the Auxiliary
Territorial Service. In November 1947, she married Philip Mountbatten, a
former prince of Greece and Denmark, and their marriage lasted 73 years
until his death in 2021. They had four children: Charles, Anne, Andrew,
and Edward. When her father died in February 1952,
Elizabeth—then 25 years old—became queen of seven independent
Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon (known today as Sri Lanka),
as well as Head of the Commonwealth. Elizabeth reigned as a
constitutional monarch through major political changes such as the
Troubles in Northern Ireland, devolution in the United Kingdom, the
decolonisation of Africa, and the United Kingdom's accession to the
European Communities and withdrawal from the European Union. The number
of her realms varied over time as territories gained independence and
some realms became republics. As queen, Elizabeth was served by more
than 170 prime ministers across her realms. Her many historic visits and
meetings included state visits to China in 1986, to Russia in 1994, and
to the Republic of Ireland in 2011, and meetings with five popes. Significant
events included Elizabeth's coronation in 1953 and the celebrations of
her Silver, Golden, Diamond, and Platinum jubilees in 1977, 2002, 2012,
and 2022, respectively. Although she faced occasional republican
sentiment and media criticism of her family—particularly after the
breakdowns of her children's marriages, her annus horribilis in 1992,
and the death in 1997 of her former daughter-in-law Diana, Princess of
Wales—support for the monarchy in the United Kingdom remained
consistently high throughout her lifetime, as did her personal
popularity.[1] Elizabeth died in September 2022 at Balmoral Castle in
Aberdeenshire, at the age of 96, and was succeeded by her eldest child,
King Charles III. Her state funeral was the first to be held in the
United Kingdom since that of Winston Churchill in 1965. Early life Elizabeth as a thoughtful-looking toddler with curly, fair hair On the cover of Time, April 1929 Elizabeth as a rosy-cheeked young girl with blue eyes and fair hair Portrait by Philip de László, 1933 Princess
Elizabeth was born at 02:40 (GMT) on 21 April 1926,[2] during the reign
of her paternal grandfather, King George V. Her father, Prince Albert,
Duke of York (later King George VI), was the second son of the King. Her
mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth The Queen
Mother), was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude
Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. Princess Elizabeth
was delivered by Caesarean section at 17 Bruton Street in Mayfair, which
was her grandfather Lord Strathmore's London home.[3] She was baptised
by the Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, in the private
chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May,[4][a] and named Elizabeth after
her mother; Alexandra after her paternal great-grandmother, who had died
six months earlier; and Mary after her paternal grandmother.[6] Called
"Lilibet" by her close family,[7] based on what she called herself at
first,[8] she was cherished by her grandfather George V, whom she
affectionately called "Grandpa England",[9] and her regular visits
during his serious illness in 1929 were credited in the popular press
and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his
recovery.[10] Elizabeth's only sibling, Princess Margaret, was
born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the
supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford.[11]
Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature, and music.[12]
Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood
years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the
royal family.[13] The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and
dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility.[14] Others
echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she
was two as "a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness
astonishing in an infant."[15] Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her
as "a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and
well-behaved".[16] Heir presumptive During her grandfather's
reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the British
throne, behind her uncle Edward and her father. Although her birth
generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as
Edward was still young and likely to marry and have children of his own,
who would precede Elizabeth in the line of succession.[17] When her
grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she
became second in line to the throne, after her father. Later that year,
Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite
Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[18] Consequently,
Elizabeth's father became king, taking the regnal name George VI. Since
Elizabeth had no brothers, she became heir presumptive. If her parents
had subsequently borne a son, he would have been heir apparent and above
her in the line of succession, which was determined by the
male-preference primogeniture in effect at the time.[19] Elizabeth
received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten,
Vice-Provost of Eton College,[20] and learned French from a succession
of native-speaking governesses.[21] A Girl Guides company, the 1st
Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so she could
socialise with girls her own age.[22] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea
Ranger.[21] In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the
United States. As in 1927, when they had toured Australia and New
Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought she was
too young to undertake public tours.[23] She "looked tearful" as her
parents departed.[24] They corresponded regularly,[24] and she and her
parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[23] Second World War In Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945 In
September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War. Lord Hailsham
suggested that Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret should be evacuated to
Canada to avoid the frequent aerial bombings of London by the
Luftwaffe.[25] This was rejected by their mother, who declared, "The
children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the
King will never leave."[26] The princesses stayed at Balmoral Castle,
Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House,
Norfolk.[27] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge,
Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of
the next five years.[28] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at
Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit
into military garments.[29] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her
first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other
children who had been evacuated from the cities.[30] She stated: "We
are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers, and
airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our own share of the danger and
sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be
well."[30] In 1943, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public
appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been
appointed colonel the previous year.[31] As she approached her 18th
birthday, Parliament changed the law so she could act as one of five
counsellors of state in the event of her father's incapacity or absence
abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[32] In February 1945,
she was appointed an honorary second subaltern in the Auxiliary
Territorial Service with the service number of 230873.[33] She trained
and worked as a driver and mechanic and was given the rank of honorary
junior commander (female equivalent of captain at the time) five months
later.[34] Elizabeth (far left) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with her family and Winston Churchill, 8 May 1945 At
the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Elizabeth and
Margaret mingled incognito with the celebrating crowds in the streets of
London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents
if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified
of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms
and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of
happiness and relief."[35] During the war, plans were drawn up to
quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with
Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle
or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were
abandoned for several reasons, including fear of associating Elizabeth
with conscientious objectors in the Urdd at a time when Britain was at
war.[36] Welsh politicians suggested she be made Princess of Wales on
her 18th birthday. Home Secretary Herbert Morrison supported the idea,
but the King rejected it because he felt such a title belonged solely to
the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been
the heir apparent.[37] In 1946, she was inducted into the Gorsedd of
Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[38] Princess Elizabeth
went on her first overseas tour in 1947, accompanying her parents
through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British
Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: "I
declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short,
shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial
family to which we all belong."[39] The speech was written by Dermot
Morrah, a journalist for The Times.[40] Marriage Main article: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten Elizabeth
met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934
and again in 1937.[41] They were second cousins once removed through
King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria.
After meeting for the third time at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth
in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love
with Philip, who was 18, and they began to exchange letters.[42] She was
21 when their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[43] The
engagement attracted some controversy. Philip had no financial
standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in
the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had
married German noblemen with Nazi links.[44] Marion Crawford wrote,
"Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He
was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long
and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[45] Later
biographies reported that Elizabeth's mother had reservations about the
union initially, and teased Philip as "the Hun".[46] In later life,
however, she told the biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English
gentleman".[47] At Buckingham Palace with new husband Philip after their wedding, 1947 Before
the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, officially
converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style
Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's
British family.[48] Shortly before the wedding, he was created Duke of
Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[49] Elizabeth and
Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They
received 2,500 wedding gifts from around the world.[50] Elizabeth
required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown (which was
designed by Norman Hartnell) because Britain had not yet completely
recovered from the devastation of the war.[51] In post-war Britain, it
was not acceptable for Philip's German relations, including his three
surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[52] Neither was an
invitation extended to the Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward
VIII.[53] Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Charles, on 14
November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent
allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or
princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their
father was no longer a royal prince.[54] A second child, Princess Anne,
was born on 15 August 1950.[55] Following their wedding, the
couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until July 1949,[50]
when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various
times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the
British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and
Elizabeth lived intermittently in Malta for several months at a time in
the hamlet of Gwardamanġa, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of
Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. Their two children remained in
Britain.[56] Reign Accession and coronation Main article: Coronation of Elizabeth II Coronation portrait by Cecil Beaton, 1953 George
VI's health declined during 1951, and Elizabeth frequently stood in for
him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President
Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private
secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in
case of the King's death while she was on tour.[57] In early 1952,
Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by
way of the British colony of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just
returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at
Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of George VI and
Elizabeth's consequent accession to the throne with immediate effect.
Philip broke the news to the new queen.[58] She chose to retain
Elizabeth as her regnal name;[59] thus she was called Elizabeth II,
which offended many Scots, as she was the first Elizabeth to rule in
Scotland.[60] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the
royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[61] Elizabeth and
Philip moved into Buckingham Palace.[62] With Elizabeth's
accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear the Duke
of Edinburgh's name, in line with the custom of a wife taking her
husband's surname on marriage. Lord Mountbatten advocated the name House
of Mountbatten. Philip suggested House of Edinburgh, after his ducal
title.[63] The British prime minister, Winston Churchill, and
Elizabeth's grandmother Queen Mary favoured the retention of the House
of Windsor, so Elizabeth issued a declaration on 9 April 1952 that
Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. Philip
complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his
name to his own children."[64] In 1960, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor
was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not
carry royal titles.[65] Amid preparations for the coronation,
Princess Margaret told her sister she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a
divorcé 16 years Margaret's senior with two sons from his previous
marriage. Elizabeth asked them to wait for a year; in the words of her
private secretary, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the
Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would
peter out."[66] Senior politicians were against the match and the
Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret
had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to
renounce her right of succession.[67] Margaret decided to abandon her
plans with Townsend.[68] Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24
March 1953, the coronation went ahead as planned on 2 June, as Mary had
requested before she died.[69] The coronation ceremony in Westminster
Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised
for the first time.[70][b] On Elizabeth's instruction, her coronation
gown was embroidered with the floral emblems of Commonwealth
countries.[74] Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth Further information: Commonwealth realm § From the accession of Elizabeth II Elizabeth's realms (light red and pink) and their territories and protectorates (dark red) at the beginning of her reign in 1952 From
Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its
transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[75] By the time of her
accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was
already established.[76] In 1953, Elizabeth and her husband embarked on a
seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering
more than 40,000 miles (64,000 km) by land, sea and air.[77] She became
the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those
nations.[78] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the
population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[79] Throughout
her reign, Elizabeth made hundreds of state visits to other countries
and tours of the Commonwealth; she was the most widely travelled head of
state.[80] In 1956, the British and French prime ministers, Sir
Anthony Eden and Guy Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining
the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following
year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European
Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union.[81] In November
1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful
attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten said Elizabeth was
opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months
later.[82] A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume. With Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference The
absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for
choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to
Elizabeth to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden
recommended she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the
Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted
the British Cabinet, Churchill, and the chairman of the backbench 1922
Committee, resulting in Elizabeth appointing their recommended
candidate: Harold Macmillan.[83] The Suez crisis and the choice
of Eden's successor led, in 1957, to the first major personal criticism
of Elizabeth. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[84] Lord
Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[85] Altrincham was
denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public
appalled by his comments.[86] Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan
resigned and advised Elizabeth to appoint the Earl of Home as the prime
minister, advice she followed.[87] Elizabeth again came under criticism
for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of
ministers or a single minister.[87] In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a
formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving the Queen of her
involvement.[88] Seated with Philip on thrones at the Canadian parliament, 1957 In
1957, Elizabeth made a state visit to the United States, where she
addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the
Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament,
becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary
session.[89] Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada,
she revisited the United States and toured Canada.[89][90] In 1961, she
toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran.[91] On a visit to
Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her
host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state,
was a target for assassins.[92] Harold Macmillan wrote, "The Queen has
been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the
attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed
'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a
Queen."[92] Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press
reported extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting
Elizabeth's assassination.[93] No attempt was made, but a riot did break
out while she was in Montreal; Elizabeth's "calmness and courage in the
face of the violence" was noted.[94] Elizabeth gave birth to her
third child, Prince Andrew, on 19 February 1960, which was the first
birth to a reigning British monarch since 1857.[95] Her fourth child,
Prince Edward, was born on 10 March 1964.[96] In addition to
performing traditional ceremonies, Elizabeth also instituted new
practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the
public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in
1970.[97] Acceleration of decolonisation In Queensland, Australia, 1970 With President Tito of Yugoslavia in Belgrade, 1972 The
1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and
the Caribbean. More than 20 countries gained independence from Britain
as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however,
the Rhodesian prime minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towards
majority rule, unilaterally declared independence while expressing
"loyalty and devotion" to Elizabeth, declaring her "Queen of
Rhodesia".[98] Although Elizabeth formally dismissed him, and the
international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime
survived for over a decade.[99] As Britain's ties to its former empire
weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community,
a goal it achieved in 1973.[100] Elizabeth toured Yugoslavia in
October 1972, becoming the first British monarch to visit a communist
country.[101] She was received at the airport by President Josip Broz
Tito, and a crowd of thousands greeted her in Belgrade.[102] In
February 1974, the British prime minister, Edward Heath, advised
Elizabeth to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the
Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain.[103] The
election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not
the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition
with the Liberals. When discussions on forming a coalition foundered,
Heath resigned as prime minister and Elizabeth asked the Leader of the
Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.[104] A
year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis,
the Australian prime minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his
post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled
Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals.[105] As Whitlam had a
majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes
appealed to Elizabeth to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, saying
she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of
Australia for the Governor-General.[106] The crisis fuelled Australian
republicanism.[105] Silver Jubilee Leaders of the G7 states, members of the royal family and Elizabeth (centre), London, 1977 In
1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and
events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her
associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations
re-affirmed Elizabeth's popularity, despite virtually coincident
negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her
husband, Lord Snowdon.[107] In 1978, Elizabeth endured a state visit to
the United Kingdom by Romania's communist leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and
his wife, Elena,[108] though privately she thought they had "blood on
their hands".[109] The following year brought two blows: one was the
unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a
communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and
in-law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.[110] According
to Paul Martin Sr., by the end of the 1970s Elizabeth was worried the
Crown "had little meaning for" Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian prime
minister.[111] Tony Benn said Elizabeth found Trudeau "rather
disappointing".[111] Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be
confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham
Palace and pirouetting behind Elizabeth's back in 1977, and the removal
of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office.[111] In
1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of
the Canadian constitution found Elizabeth "better informed ... than any
of the British politicians or bureaucrats".[111] She was particularly
interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her
role as head of state.[111] Press scrutiny and Thatcher premiership Elizabeth in red uniform on a black horse Riding Burmese at the 1986 Trooping the Colour ceremony During
the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before the wedding of
Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at Elizabeth
from close range as she rode down The Mall, London, on her horse,
Burmese. Police later discovered the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old
assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and
released after three.[112] Elizabeth's composure and skill in
controlling her mount were widely praised.[113] That October Elizabeth
was the subject of another attack while on a visit to Dunedin, New
Zealand. Christopher John Lewis, who was 17 years old, fired a shot with
a .22 rifle from the fifth floor of a building overlooking the parade,
but missed.[114] Lewis was arrested, but never charged with attempted
murder or treason, and sentenced to three years in jail for unlawful
possession and discharge of a firearm. Two years into his sentence, he
attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital with the intention of
assassinating Charles, who was visiting the country with Diana and their
son Prince William.[115] Elizabeth and Ronald Reagan on black horses. He bare-headed; she in a headscarf; both in tweeds, jodhpurs and riding boots. Riding at Windsor with President Reagan, June 1982 From
April to September 1982, Elizabeth's son, Prince Andrew, served with
British forces in the Falklands War, for which she reportedly felt
anxiety[116] and pride.[117] On 9 July, she awoke in her bedroom at
Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with
her. In a serious lapse of security, assistance only arrived after two
calls to the Palace police switchboard.[118] After hosting US president
Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California
ranch in 1983, Elizabeth was angered when his administration ordered the
invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing
her.[119] Intense media interest in the opinions and private
lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of
sensational stories in the press, pioneered by The Sun tabloid.[120] As
Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: "Give me a Sunday
for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true—so long as
there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards."[121] Newspaper
editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: "The
royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that
the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of ... it is
not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials:
they don't care if the stories are true or not." It was reported, most
notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that Elizabeth was worried
that Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions and
was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a
miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the
apartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included
royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth secretary-general Shridath
Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and
embellished by speculation.[122] Thatcher reputedly said Elizabeth would
vote for the Social Democratic Party—Thatcher's political
opponents.[123] Thatcher's biographer, John Campbell, claimed "the
report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making".[124] Reports of
acrimony between them were exaggerated,[125] and Elizabeth gave two
honours in her personal gift—membership in the Order of Merit and the
Order of the Garter—to Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister
by John Major.[126] Brian Mulroney, Canadian prime minister between 1984
and 1993, said Elizabeth was a "behind the scenes force" in ending
apartheid.[127][128] In 1986, Elizabeth paid a six-day state
visit to the People's Republic of China, becoming the first British
monarch to visit the country.[129] The tour included the Forbidden City,
the Great Wall of China, and the Terracotta Warriors.[130] At a state
banquet, Elizabeth joked about the first British emissary to China being
lost at sea with Queen Elizabeth I's letter to the Wanli Emperor, and
remarked, "fortunately postal services have improved since 1602".[131]
Elizabeth's visit also signified the acceptance of both countries that
sovereignty over Hong Kong would be transferred from the United Kingdom
to China in 1997.[132] By the end of the 1980s, Elizabeth had
become the target of satire.[133] The involvement of younger members of
the royal family in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout in 1987
was ridiculed.[134] In Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically
divisive constitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents
of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau.[127] The same year,
the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. As monarch
of Fiji, Elizabeth supported the attempts of Governor-General Ratu Sir
Penaia Ganilau to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement.
Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a
republic.[135] Soames,
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978-0-316-84820-6 Macmillan, Harold (1972), Pointing the Way 1959–1961, Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-12411-1 Marr, Andrew (2011), The Diamond Queen: Elizabeth II and Her People, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-230-74852-1 Mitchell,
James (2003), "Scotland: Cultural Base and Economic Catalysts", in
Hollowell, Jonathan (ed.), Britain Since 1945, Wiley-Blackwell, pp.
109–125, doi:10.1002/9780470758328.ch5, ISBN 978-0-631-20967-6 Montgomery-Massingberd,
Hugh, ed. (1973), "The Royal Lineage", Burke's Guide to the Royal
Family, London: Burke's Peerage, ISBN 0-220-66222-3 Neil, Andrew (1996), Full Disclosure, Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-64682-7 Nicolson, Harold (1952), King George the Fifth: His Life and Reign, Constable & Co. Petropoulos,
Jonathan (2006), Royals and the Reich: The Princes von Hessen in Nazi
Germany, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-516133-5 Pimlott, Ben (2001), The Queen: Elizabeth II and the Monarchy, HarperCollins, ISBN 0-00-255494-1 Roberts, Andrew (2000), Fraser, Antonia (ed.), The House of Windsor, Cassell & Co., ISBN 0-304-35406-6 Routledge, Paul (1994), Scargill: The Unauthorized Biography, London: Harper Collins, ISBN 0-00-638077-8 Shawcross, William (2002), Queen and Country, McClelland & Stewart, ISBN 0-7710-8056-5 Speaight,
Robert (1970), Vanier, Soldier, Diplomat, Governor General: A
Biography, London: William Collins, Sons and Co. Ltd., ISBN
978-0-00-262252-3 Tomaszewski, Fiona K. (2002), A Great Russia:
Russia and the Triple Entente, 1905–1914, Greenwood Publishing Group,
ISBN 978-0-275-97366-7 Warwick, Christopher (2002), Princess Margaret: A Life of Contrasts, London: Carlton Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-233-05106-2 Williamson, David (1987), Debrett's Kings and Queens of Britain, Webb & Bower, ISBN 0-86350-101-X Wyatt, Woodrow (1999), Curtis, Sarah (ed.), The Journals of Woodrow Wyatt, vol. II, Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-77405-1 External links Listen to this article (54 minutes) 53:31 Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 23 June 2014, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Queen Elizabeth II at the Royal Family website Queen Elizabeth II at the website of the Government of Canada Portraits of Queen Elizabeth II at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at Wikidata Queen Elizabeth II at IMDb Edit this at Wikidata Appearances on C-SPAN Edit this at Wikidata Titles and succession vte Elizabeth II Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms (1952–2022) Monarchies Antigua
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YearWomen in the Canadian armed services Queen Victoria Queen of the United Kingdom (more ...) Reign 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Coronation 28 June 1838 Predecessor William IV Successor Edward VII Empress of India Reign 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901 Imperial Durbar 1 January 1877 Successor Edward VII Born Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent 24 May 1819 Kensington Palace, London, England Died 22 January 1901 (aged 81) Osborne House, Isle of Wight, England Burial 4 February 1901 Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, Windsor Spouse Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (m. 1840; died 1861) Issue Victoria, German Empress Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg House Hanover Father Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn Mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Signature Victoria's signature Victoria
(Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her
death in 1901. Known as the Victorian era, her reign of 63 years and
seven months was longer than any previous British monarch. It was a
period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within
the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British
Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the
additional title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter
of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King
George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the
deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close
supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She
inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers
died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional
monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and
ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was
identified with strict standards of personal morality. Victoria
married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in
1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the
continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe"
and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in
1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public
appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism
temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her
popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of
public celebration. She died on the Isle of Wight in 1901. The last
British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son
Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Birth and family Portrait of Victoria at age 4 Victoria at age four, by Stephen Poyntz Denning, 1823 Victoria's
father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son
of the reigning King of the United Kingdom, George III. Until 1817,
Edward's niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate
grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a succession
crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried
brothers to marry and have children. In 1818 he married Princess
Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two
children—Carl (1804–1856) and Feodora (1807–1872)—by her first marriage
to Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess
Charlotte's widower and later the first king of Belgium. The Duke and
Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria, was born at 4:15 a.m. on 24 May
1819 at Kensington Palace in London.[1] Victoria was christened
privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24
June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.[a] She was baptised
Alexandrina after one of her godparents, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and
Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her
parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on
the instructions of Kent's eldest brother George, Prince Regent.[2] At
birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four
eldest sons of George III: the Prince Regent (later George IV);
Frederick, Duke of York; William, Duke of Clarence (later William IV);
and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.[3] The Prince Regent had no
surviving children, and the Duke of York had no children; further, both
were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age,
so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate
children. William and Edward married on the same day in 1818, but both
of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these
was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two
months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820,
when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather
died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then
third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. William's
second daughter, Princess Elizabeth of Clarence, lived for twelve weeks
from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821, and for that period Victoria was
fourth in line.[4] The Duke of York died in 1827, followed by
George IV in 1830; the throne passed to their next surviving brother,
William, and Victoria became heir presumptive. The Regency Act 1830 made
special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case
William died while Victoria was still a minor.[5] King William
distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared
in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday,
so that a regency could be avoided.[6] Heir presumptive Portrait of Victoria with her spaniel Dash by George Hayter, 1833 Victoria
later described her childhood as "rather melancholy".[7] Her mother was
extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from
other children under the so-called "Kensington System", an elaborate set
of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and
domineering comptroller, Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the
Duchess's lover.[8] The system prevented the princess from meeting
people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of
her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent
upon them.[9] The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised
by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.[10] Victoria
shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private
tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls
and her King Charles Spaniel, Dash.[11] Her lessons included French,
German, Italian, and Latin,[12] but she spoke only English at home.[13] Victoria's sketch of herself Self-portrait, 1835 In
1830, the Duchess of Kent and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of
England to visit the Malvern Hills, stopping at towns and great country
houses along the way.[14] Similar journeys to other parts of England
and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's
annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the
stops.[15] William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was
concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir
presumptive.[16] Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of
public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for
her to rest.[17] She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval,
but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and
forced Victoria to continue the tours.[18] At Ramsgate in October 1835,
Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a
childish pretence.[19] While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess
unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary.[20] As
a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and
Conroy to appoint him to her staff.[21] Once queen, she banned him from
her presence, but he remained in her mother's household.[22] By
1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the
Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her to Prince Albert,[23] the son of
his brother Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged
for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May
1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.[24] William
IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead
favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son of
the Prince of Orange.[25] Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial
plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.[26]
According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning.
After the visit she wrote, "[Albert] is extremely handsome; his hair is
about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a
beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of
his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful."[27]
Alexander, on the other hand, she described as "very plain".[28] Victoria
wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her "best and kindest
adviser",[29] to thank him "for the prospect of great happiness you have
contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses
every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is
so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides
the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can
possibly see."[30] However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert,
was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal
engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time.[31] Early reign Accession Drawing of two men on their knees in front of Victoria Victoria
receives the news of her accession from Lord Conyngham (left) and the
Archbishop of Canterbury. Painting by Henry Tanworth Wells, 1887. Victoria
turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and a regency was avoided. Less than a month
later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria
became Queen of the United Kingdom.[b] In her diary she wrote, "I was
awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury
and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and
went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw
them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King,
was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and
consequently that I am Queen."[32] Official documents prepared on the
first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the
first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again.[33] Since
1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under
Salic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While
Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger
brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, became King of Hanover. He
was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child.[34] Coronation portrait by George Hayter At
the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by the Whig
prime minister Lord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on
the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for
advice.[35] Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless
Melbourne was "passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter
if he had one", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.[36]
Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey. Over
400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.[37] She became the
first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace[38] and
inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well
as being granted a civil list allowance of £385,000 per year.
Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts.[39] At the
start of her reign Victoria was popular,[40] but her reputation suffered
in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting,
Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely
rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.[41]
Victoria believed the rumours.[42] She hated Conroy, and despised "that
odious Lady Flora",[43] because she had conspired with Conroy and the
Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System.[44] At first, Lady Flora
refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in
mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a
virgin.[45] Conroy, the Hastings family, and the opposition Tories
organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of
false rumours about Lady Flora.[46] When Lady Flora died in July, the
post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her
abdomen.[47] At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as
"Mrs. Melbourne".[48] In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals
and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to
suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power
from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the
abolition of slavery.[49] The Queen commissioned a Tory, Robert Peel, to
form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime
minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually his
political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen's ladies of the
bedchamber were wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with
wives of Tories. In what became known as the "bedchamber crisis",
Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused
to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently
resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.[50] Marriage See also: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Wedding dress of Queen Victoria Painting of a lavish wedding attended by richly dressed people in a magnificent room Marriage of Victoria and Albert, painted by George Hayter Though
Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required by
social convention to live with her mother, despite their differences
over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on
Conroy.[51] Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham
Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.[52] When Victoria
complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised "torment
for many years", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by
marriage, which Victoria called a "schocking [sic] alternative".[53]
Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he
would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her
into wedlock.[54] Victoria continued to praise Albert following
his second visit in October 1839. Albert and Victoria felt mutual
affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five
days after he had arrived at Windsor.[55] They were married on 10
February 1840, in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace, London.
Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding
lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary:
I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert
... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love
& happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He
clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again!
His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness – really how can I ever be
thankful enough to have such a Husband! ... to be called by names of
tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before – was bliss beyond
belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life![56] Albert
became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion,
replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half
of her life.[57] Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to
Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's aunt,
Princess Augusta, in 1840, Victoria's mother was given both Clarence and
Frogmore Houses.[58] Through Albert's mediation, relations between
mother and daughter slowly improved.[59] Contemporary lithograph of Edward Oxford's attempt to assassinate Victoria, 1840 During
Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the
marriage, 18-year-old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while
she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her
mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he
later claimed, the guns had no shot.[60] He was tried for high treason,
found not guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum
indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.[61] In the immediate
aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating
residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber
crisis.[62] Her daughter, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November
1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,[63] viewed breast-feeding with
disgust,[64] and thought newborn babies were ugly.[65] Nevertheless,
over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight
children: Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844),
Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853)
and Beatrice (b. 1857). The household was largely run by
Victoria's childhood governess, Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover.
Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria[66] and had supported
her against the Kensington System.[67] Albert, however, thought that
Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his
daughter's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over
the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close
relationship with her ended.[68] Married reign Portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1843 On
29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall, London,
when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The
assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route,
though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait
Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected,
Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and
convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death
sentence was commuted to transportation for life, John William Bean also
tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper
and tobacco and had too little charge.[69] Edward Oxford felt that the
attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840. Bean was sentenced to
18 months in jail.[70] In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman
William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as
it passed along Constitution Hill, London.[71] In 1850, the Queen did
sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army
officer, Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck
her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both
Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation.[72] Melbourne's
support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of
Victoria's reign, and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were
defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber
most associated with the Whigs were replaced.[73] Victoria cuddling a child next to her Earliest known photograph of Victoria, here with her eldest daughter, c. 1845[74] In
1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight.[75] In the next four years,
over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what
became known as the Great Famine.[76] In Ireland, Victoria was labelled
"The Famine Queen".[77][78] In January 1847 she personally donated
£2,000 (equivalent to between £178,000 and £6.5 million in 2016[79]) to
the British Relief Association, more than any other individual famine
relief donor,[80] and also supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman
Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.[81] The
story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day
gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated
towards the end of the 19th century.[82] By 1846, Peel's ministry
faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws. Many Tories—by
then known also as Conservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel,
some Tories (the free-trade oriented liberal conservative "Peelites"),
most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the
repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced by Lord John Russell.[83] Queen Victoria's British prime ministers vte Starting Prime Minister (party) 18 April 1835 William Lamb, Viscount Melbourne (Whig) 30 August 1841 Robert Peel (Conservative) 30 June 1846 Lord John Russell (Whig) 23 February 1852 Edward Smith-Stanley, Earl of Derby (Conservative) 19 December 1852 George Hamilton-Gordon, Earl of Aberdeen (Peelite) 6 February 1855 Henry John Temple, Viscount Palmerston (Liberal) 20 February 1858 Edward Smith-Stanley, Earl of Derby (Conservative) 12 June 1859 Henry John Temple, Viscount Palmerston (Liberal) 29 October 1865 Lord John Russell (Liberal) 28 June 1866 Edward Smith-Stanley, Earl of Derby (Conservative) 27 February 1868 Benjamin Disraeli (Conservative) 3 December 1868 William Gladstone (Liberal) 20 February 1874 Benjamin Disraeli [Lord Beaconsfield] (Conservative) 23 April 1880 William Gladstone (Liberal) 23 June 1885 Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, Marquess of Salisbury (Conservative) 1 February 1886 William Gladstone (Liberal) 25 July 1886 Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, Marquess of Salisbury (Conservative) 15 August 1892 William Gladstone (Liberal) 5 March 1894 Archibald Primrose, Earl of Rosebery (Liberal) 25 June 1895 Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, Marquess of Salisbury (Conservative) See List of prime ministers of Queen Victoria for details of her British and Imperial premiers Internationally,
Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between
France and Britain.[84] She made and hosted several visits between the
British royal family and the House of Orleans, who were related by
marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed
with King Louis Philippe I at Château d'Eu in Normandy; she was the
first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the
meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of
the Cloth of Gold in 1520.[85] When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal
trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British
sovereign.[86] Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848,
and fled to exile in England.[87] At the height of a revolutionary scare
in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left
London for the greater safety of Osborne House,[88] a private estate on
the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.[89]
Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract
widespread support, and the scare died down without any major
disturbances.[90] Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public
relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth
of Irish nationalism.[91] Portrait of the young Queen by Herbert Smith, 1848 Russell's
ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.[92] She found
particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, who often
acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the
Queen.[93] Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official
dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was
retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite
her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was
removed after he announced the British government's approval of
President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte's coup in France without consulting
the Prime Minister.[94] The following year, President Bonaparte was
declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration
had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led by Lord
Derby. Photograph of a seated Victoria, dressed in black, holding an infant with her children and Prince Albert standing around her Albert,
Victoria and their nine children, 1857. Left to right: Alice, Arthur,
Prince Albert, Albert Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria with
Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena. In 1853, Victoria gave
birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic,
chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of
childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and
final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy,
who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical
profession, who thought it dangerous.[95] Victoria may have had
postnatal depression after many of her pregnancies.[96] Letters from
Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control.
For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a
letter to Victoria about her "continuance of hysterics" over a
"miserable trifle".[97] In early 1855, the government of Lord
Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the
poor management of British troops in the Crimean War. Victoria
approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had
sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as
prime minister.[98] Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a
result of the Crimean War,[96] visited London in April 1855, and from 17
to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.[99]
Napoleon III met the couple at Boulogne and accompanied them to
Paris.[100] They visited the Exposition Universelle (a successor to
Albert's 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition) and Napoleon I's tomb at
Les Invalides (to which his remains had only been returned in 1840), and
were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at the Palace of
Versailles.[101] Portrait by Winterhalter, 1859 On 14 January
1858, an Italian refugee from Britain called Felice Orsini attempted to
assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.[102] The ensuing
diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned.
Derby was reinstated as prime minister.[103] Victoria and Albert
attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port of
Cherbourg on 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure
Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her
return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of
the Royal Navy in comparison to the French Navy.[104] Derby's ministry
did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to
office.[105] Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in
France, Victoria's eldest daughter married Prince Frederick William of
Prussia in London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when
Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the
Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.[106] The Queen and
Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising
influence in the enlarging Prussian state.[107] The Queen felt "sick at
heart" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; "It really makes
me shudder", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent
letters, "when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious
sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one."[108] Almost
exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first
grandchild, Wilhelm, who would become the last German Emperor. Widowhood Victoria photographed by J. J. E. Mayall, 1860 In
March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through
reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had
loved her deeply;[109] she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and
Lehzen for "wickedly" estranging her from her mother.[110] To relieve
his wife during her intense and deep grief,[111] Albert took on most of
her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.[112]
In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son, Albert Edward, Prince
of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a
few days holidaying in Killarney. In November, Albert was made aware of
gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.[113] Appalled,
he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront
him.[114] By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.[115] He
was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner, and died on 14
December 1861. Victoria was devastated.[116] She blamed her husband's
death on worry over the Prince of Wales's philandering. He had been
"killed by that dreadful business", she said.[117] She entered a state
of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided
public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following
years.[118] Her seclusion earned her the nickname "widow of
Windsor".[119] Her weight increased through comfort eating, which
reinforced her aversion to public appearances.[120] Victoria's
self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the
monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.[121] She
did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain
secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the
private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847,
Balmoral Castle. In March 1864 a protester stuck a notice on the
railings of Buckingham Palace that announced "these commanding premises
to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining
business".[122] Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in
public. She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural
Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open
carriage.[123] Victoria and John Brown at Balmoral, 1863. Photograph by G. W. Wilson. Through
the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland,
John Brown.[124] Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret
marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as "Mrs.
Brown".[125] The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997
movie Mrs. Brown. A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the
Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and Victoria
published a book, Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands,
which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him
highly.[126] Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry
led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended the
State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's
death.[127] The following year she supported the passing of the Reform
Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many
urban working men,[128] though she was not in favour of votes for
women.[129] Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli,
who charmed Victoria. "Everyone likes flattery," he said, "and when you
come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel."[130] With the
phrase "we authors, Ma'am", he complimented her.[131] Disraeli's
ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his
Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister.
Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to
her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were "a public
meeting rather than a woman".[132] In 1870 republican sentiment
in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the
establishment of the Third French Republic.[133] A republican rally in
Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke
against her.[134] In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill
with an abscess in her arm, which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and
treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray.[135] In late
November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of
Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have
killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.[136] As
the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's
condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.[137] To
general rejoicing, he recovered.[138] Mother and son attended a public
parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul's
Cathedral on 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided.[139] On
the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service,
17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MP Feargus
O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just
after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the
Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months'
imprisonment,[140] and a birching.[141] As a result of the incident,
Victoria's popularity recovered further.[142] Empress Wikisource has original text related to this article: Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs, and people of India After
the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had
ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and
protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into
the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the
conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.[143] She wrote of "her
feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil
war",[144] and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official
proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the
state "should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious
toleration".[145] At her behest, a reference threatening the
"undermining of native religions and customs" was replaced by a passage
guaranteeing religious freedom.[145] Victoria admired Heinrich von
Angeli's 1875 portrait of her for its "honesty, total want of flattery,
and appreciation of character".[146] In the 1874 general
election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship
Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican
liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.[147] She preferred short,
simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with
the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of
England.[148] Disraeli also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through
Parliament, so that Victoria took the title "Empress of India" from 1
May 1876.[149] The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1
January 1877.[150] On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of
Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had married Louis
of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the
coincidence of the dates as "almost incredible and most
mysterious".[151] In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the
birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her "poor old
60th birthday". She felt "aged" by "the loss of my beloved child".[152] Between
April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate
while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo-Turkish
War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion
with the Congress of Berlin.[153] Disraeli's expansionist foreign
policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo-Zulu
War and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. "If we are to maintain our
position as a first-rate Power", she wrote, "we must ... be Prepared for
attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY."[154] Victoria saw
the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting
native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: "It is not
in our custom to annexe countries", she said, "unless we are obliged
& forced to do so."[155] To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the
1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.[156]
When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by "fast falling
tears",[157] and erected a memorial tablet "placed by his grateful
Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I."[158] Later years Victorian farthing, 1884 On
2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended
by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,[159] shot at the Queen
as her carriage left Windsor railway station. Two schoolboys from Eton
College struck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a
policeman.[160] Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by
reason of insanity,[161] but was so pleased by the many expressions of
loyalty after the attack that she said it was "worth being shot at—to
see how much one is loved".[162] On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell
down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never
fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.[163] John
Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her
private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a
eulogistic biography of Brown.[164] Ponsonby and Randall Davidson, Dean
of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against
publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love
affair.[165] The manuscript was destroyed.[166] In early 1884, Victoria
did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a
sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her "devoted personal
attendant and faithful friend John Brown".[167] On the day after the
first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram
that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes. He was "the dearest
of my dear sons", she lamented.[168] The following month, Victoria's
youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love with Prince Henry of
Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria's granddaughter Princess Victoria
of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg.
Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at
first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a
year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain
living with and attending her.[169] Extent of the British Empire in 1898 Victoria
was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was
defeated.[170] She thought his government was "the worst I have ever
had", and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum.[171]
Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only
lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall
Gladstone, whom she referred to as a "half crazy & really in many
ways ridiculous old man".[172] Gladstone attempted to pass a bill
granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.[173]
In the ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the
government switched hands again. Golden Jubilee The Munshi stands over Victoria as she works at a desk Victoria and the Munshi Abdul Karim In
1887, the British Empire celebrated the Golden Jubilee of Queen
Victoria. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20
June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The
following day, she participated in a procession and attended a
thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey.[174] By this time, Victoria
was once again extremely popular.[175] Two days later on 23 June,[176]
she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim.
He was soon promoted to "Munshi": teaching her Urdu and acting as a
clerk.[177][178][179] Her family and retainers were appalled, and
accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and
biasing the Queen against the Hindus.[180] Equerry Frederick Ponsonby
(the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his
parentage, and reported to Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India, "the Munshi
occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do."[181]
Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.[182] Abdul
Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension,
on her death.[183] Victoria's eldest daughter became empress
consort of Germany in 1888, but she was widowed a little over three
months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor as
Wilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go
unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer in autocracy. Victoria
thought he had "little heart or Zartgefühl [tact] – and ... his
conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped [sic]".[184] Gladstone
returned to power after the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old.
Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP
Henry Labouchère to the Cabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint
him.[185] In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the
outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime
minister.[186] His government was weak, and the following year Lord
Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the
remainder of Victoria's reign.[187] Diamond Jubilee Seated Victoria in embroidered and lace dress Victoria in her official Diamond Jubilee photograph by W. & D. Downey On
23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the
longest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that
any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her
Diamond Jubilee,[188] which was made a festival of the British Empire at
the suggestion of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain.[189] The
prime ministers of all the self-governing Dominions were invited to
London for the festivities.[190] One reason for including the prime
ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to
avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson, Wilhelm II of Germany, who,
it was feared, might cause trouble at the event.[191] The Queen's
Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles
long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The
procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside
St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage,
to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The
celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great
outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen.[192] Queen Victoria in Dublin, 1900 Victoria
visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay
in Biarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set
foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit.[193] By
April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her
annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to
Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the
contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war.[194] Death and succession Portrait by Heinrich von Angeli, 1899 In
July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred ("Affie"), died. "Oh, God! My
poor darling Affie gone too", she wrote in her journal. "It is a
horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind &
another."[195] Following a custom she maintained throughout her
widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the
Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her disabled, and her
eyesight was clouded by cataracts.[196] Through early January, she felt
"weak and unwell",[197] and by mid-January she was "drowsy ... dazed,
[and] confused".[198] She died on 22 January 1901, at half past six in
the evening, at the age of 81.[199] Her son and successor, King Edward
VII, and her eldest grandson, Emperor Wilhelm II, were at her
deathbed.[200] Her favourite pet Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her
deathbed as a last request.[201] Poster proclaiming a day of mourning in Toronto on the day of Victoria's funeral In
1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to
be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the
army,[96] and white instead of black.[202] On 25 January, Edward,
Wilhelm, and her third son, Arthur, helped lift her body into the
coffin.[203] She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.[204]
An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and
servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her doctor
and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side,
with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair,
along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from
the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of
flowers.[96][205] Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the
wedding ring of John Brown's mother, given to her by Brown in 1883.[96]
Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, in St George's Chapel,
Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred
beside Prince Albert in the Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, at Windsor Great
Park.[206] With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days,
Victoria was the longest-reigning British monarch and the
longest-reigning queen regnant in world history, until her
great-great-granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September
2015.[207] She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of
Hanover; her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to her husband's
House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Legacy See also: Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria Victoria smiling Victoria
amused. The remark "We are not amused" is attributed to her but there
is no direct evidence that she ever said it,[96][208] and she denied
doing so.[209] According to one of her biographers, Giles St
Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult
life.[210] From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a
detailed journal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.[211] After
Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was
appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the
diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals
in the process.[212] Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still
exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy, Lord Esher transcribed
the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.[213] Part
of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes
edited by A. C. Benson, Hector Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher,
Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.[214] Bronze statue of winged victory mounted on a marble four-sided base with a marble figure on each side The
Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace was erected as part of
the remodelling of the façade of the Palace a decade after her death. Victoria
was physically unprepossessing—she was stout, dowdy and only about five
feet (1.5 metres) tall—but she succeeded in projecting a grand
image.[215] She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her
widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she
embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.[216] Only after
the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political
influence become known to the wider public.[96][217] Biographies of
Victoria written before much of the primary material became available,
such as Lytton Strachey's Queen Victoria of 1921, are now considered out
of date.[218] The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil
Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely
admired.[219] They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was
emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking.[220] Contrary to
popular belief, her staff and family recorded that Victoria "was
immensely amused and roared with laughter" on many occasions.[221] Through
Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional
monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased
the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords
and the monarch.[222] In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch
only retained "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and
the right to warn".[223] As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic
than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family
values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that
had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and
which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the "family
monarchy", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was
solidified.[224] Descendants and haemophilia Victoria's links
with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname "the grandmother of
Europe".[225] Of the 42 grandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34
survived to adulthood. Their living descendants include Elizabeth II;
Harald V of Norway; Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden; Margrethe II of Denmark;
and Felipe VI of Spain. Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was
affected by the blood-clotting disease haemophilia B and at least two of
her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal
haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great-grandsons,
Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia; Alfonso, Prince of Asturias;
and Infante Gonzalo of Spain.[226] The presence of the disease in
Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led to modern
speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a
haemophiliac.[227] There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in
connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the
disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously
ill.[228] It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously
because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and
haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older
fathers.[229] Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of
cases.[230] Namesakes The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, India Around
the world, places and memorials are dedicated to her, especially in the
Commonwealth nations. Places named after her include Africa's largest
lake, Victoria Falls, the capitals of British Columbia (Victoria) and
Saskatchewan (Regina), two Australian states (Victoria and Queensland),
and the capital of the island nation of Seychelles. The Victoria
Cross was introduced in 1856 to reward acts of valour during the Crimean
War,[231] and it remains the highest British, Canadian, Australian, and
New Zealand award for bravery. Victoria Day is a Canadian statutory
holiday and a local public holiday in parts of Scotland celebrated on
the last Monday before or on 24 May (Queen Victoria's birthday). Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles 24 May 1819 – 20 June 1837: Her Royal Highness Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901: Her Majesty The Queen At
the end of her reign, the Queen's full style was: "Her Majesty
Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India".[232] Honours British honours Royal Family Order of King George IV, 1826[233] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Star of India, 25 June 1861[234] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 10 February 1862[235] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Crown of India, 1 January 1878[236] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Indian Empire, 1 January 1878[237] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Red Cross, 27 April 1883[238] Founder and Sovereign of the Distinguished Service Order, 6 November 1886[239] Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, 1887[240] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Victorian Order, 23 April 1896[241] Foreign honours Spain: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 21 December 1833[242] Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III[243] Portugal: Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 23 February 1836[244] Grand Cross of Our Lady of Conception[243] Russia: Grand Cross of St. Catherine, 26 June 1837[245] France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 5 September 1843[246] Mexico: Grand Cross of the National Order of Guadalupe, 1854[247] Prussia: Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Division, 11 June 1857[248] Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I, 3 December 1872[249] Persia:[250] Order of the Sun, 1st Class in Diamonds, 20 June 1873 Order of the August Portrait, 20 June 1873 Siam: Grand Cross of the White Elephant, 1880[251] Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 1887[252] Hawaii: Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, with Collar, July 1881[253] Serbia:[254][255] Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo, 1882 Grand Cross of the White Eagle, 1883 Grand Cross of St. Sava, 1897 Hesse and by Rhine: Dame of the Golden Lion, 25 April 1885[256] Bulgaria: Order of the Bulgarian Red Cross, August 1887[257] Ethiopia: Grand Cross of the Seal of Solomon, 22 June 1897 – Diamond Jubilee gift[258] Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I, 1897[259] Saxe-Coburg and Gotha: Silver Wedding Medal of Duke Alfred and Duchess Marie, 23 January 1899[260] Arms As
Sovereign, Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom.
Before her accession, she received no grant of arms. As she could not
succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian
symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been
borne by all of her successors on the throne. Outside Scotland,
the blazon for the shield—also used on the Royal Standard—is: Quarterly:
I and IV, Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England);
II, Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory
Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for
Ireland). In Scotland, the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the
Scottish lion, and the second by the English lions. The crests,
mottoes, and supporters also differ in and outside Scotland. Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (1837-1952).svg Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom in Scotland (1837-1952).svg Royal arms (outside Scotland) Royal arms (in Scotland) Family Victoria's family in 1846 by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. Left to right: Prince Alfred and the Prince of Wales; the Queen and Prince Albert; Princesses Alice, Helena and Victoria. Issue See also: Descendants of Queen Victoria and Royal descendants of Queen Victoria and King Christian IX Name Birth Death Spouse and children[232][261] Victoria, Princess Royal 21 November 1840 5 August 1901 Married 1858, Frederick, later German Emperor and King of Prussia (1831–1888); 4 sons (including Wilhelm II, German Emperor), 4 daughters (including Queen Sophia of Greece) Edward VII of the United Kingdom 9 November 1841 6 May 1910 Married 1863, Princess Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925); 3 sons (including King George V of the United Kingdom), 3 daughters (including Queen Maud of Norway) Princess Alice 25 April 1843 14 December 1878 Married 1862, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine (1837–1892); 2 sons, 5 daughters (including Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia) Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 6 August 1844 31 July 1900 Married 1874, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (1853–1920); 2 sons (1 stillborn), 4 daughters (including Queen Marie of Romania) Princess Helena 25 May 1846 9 June 1923 Married 1866, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (1831–1917); 4 sons (1 stillborn), 2 daughters Princess Louise 18 March 1848 3 December 1939 Married 1871, John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, later 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914); no issue Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn 1 May 1850 16 January 1942 Married 1879, Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (1860–1917); 1 son, 2 daughters (including Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden) Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany 7 April 1853 28 March 1884 Married 1882, Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1861–1922); 1 son, 1 daughter Princess Beatrice 14 April 1857 26 October 1944 Married 1885, Prince Henry of Battenberg (1858–1896); 3 sons, 1 daughter (Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain) Ancestry Ancestors of Queen Victoria[262] Family tree Red borders indicate British monarchs Bold borders indicate children of British monarchs Family of Queen Victoria, spanning the reigns of her grandfather, George III, to her grandson, George V Notes Her
godparents were Tsar Alexander I of Russia (represented by her uncle
Frederick, Duke of York), her uncle George, Prince Regent, her aunt
Queen Charlotte of Württemberg (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess
Augusta) and Victoria's maternal grandmother the Dowager Duchess of
Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Mary,
Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh). Under section 2 of the
Regency Act 1830, the Accession Council's proclamation declared Victoria
as the King's successor "saving the rights of any issue of His late
Majesty King William the Fourth which may be borne of his late Majesty's
Consort". "No. 19509". The London Gazette. 20 June 1837. p. 1581. References Citations Hibbert, pp. 3–12; Strachey, pp. 1–17; Woodham-Smith, pp. 15–29 Hibbert, pp. 12–13; Longford, p. 23; Woodham-Smith, pp. 34–35 Longford, p. 24 Worsley, p. 41. Hibbert, p. 31; St Aubyn, p. 26; Woodham-Smith, p. 81 Hibbert, p. 46; Longford, p. 54; St Aubyn, p. 50; Waller, p. 344; Woodham-Smith, p. 126 Hibbert, p. 19; Marshall, p. 25 Hibbert,
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978-1-85605-469-0 Bibliography Charles, Barrie (2012),
Kill the Queen! The Eight Assassination Attempts on Queen Victoria,
Stroud: Amberley Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4456-0457-2 Hibbert, Christopher (2000), Queen Victoria: A Personal History, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 0-00-638843-4 Longford, Elizabeth (1964), Victoria R.I., London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-17001-5
Marshall, Dorothy (1972), The Life and Times of Queen Victoria (1992
reprint ed.), London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-83166-6 Packard, Jerrold M. (1998), Victoria's Daughters, New York: St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-24496-7
Potts, D. M.; Potts, W. T. W. (1995), Queen Victoria's Gene:
Haemophilia and the Royal Family, Stroud: Alan Sutton, ISBN
0-7509-1199-9 St. Aubyn, Giles (1991), Queen Victoria: A Portrait, London: Sinclair-Stevenson, ISBN 1-85619-086-2 Strachey, Lytton (1921), Queen Victoria, London: Chatto and Windus Waller, Maureen (2006), Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-6628-2 Weintraub, Stanley (1997), Albert: Uncrowned King, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-5756-9 Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1972), Queen Victoria: Her Life and Times 1819–1861, London: Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 0-241-02200-2
Worsley, Lucy (2018), Queen Victoria – Daughter, Wife, Mother, Widow,
London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, ISBN 978-1-4736-5138-8 Primary sources
Benson, A. C.; Esher, Viscount, eds. (1907), The Letters of Queen
Victoria: A Selection of Her Majesty's Correspondence Between the Years
1837 and 1861, London: John Murray Bolitho, Hector, ed. (1938),
Letters of Queen Victoria from the Archives of the House of
Brandenburg-Prussia, London: Thornton Butterworth Buckle, George Earle, ed. (1926), The Letters of Queen Victoria, 2nd Series 1862–1885, London: John Murray Buckle, George Earle, ed. (1930), The Letters of Queen Victoria, 3rd Series 1886–1901, London: John Murray
Connell, Brian (1962), Regina v. Palmerston: The Correspondence between
Queen Victoria and her Foreign and Prime Minister, 1837–1865, London:
Evans Brothers Duff, David, ed. (1968), Victoria in the Highlands: The Personal Journal of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, London: Muller
Dyson, Hope; Tennyson, Charles, eds. (1969), Dear and Honoured Lady:
The Correspondence between Queen Victoria and Alfred Tennyson, London:
Macmillan Esher, Viscount, ed. (1912), The Girlhood of Queen
Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty's Diaries Between the Years 1832
and 1840, London: John Murray Fulford, Roger, ed. (1964), Dearest
Child: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Princess Royal,
1858–1861, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1968),
Dearest Mama: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of
Prussia, 1861–1864, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed.
(1971), Beloved Mama: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the
German Crown Princess, 1878–1885, London: Evans Brothers Fulford,
Roger, ed. (1971), Your Dear Letter: Private Correspondence of Queen
Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1863–1871, London: Evans
Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1976), Darling Child: Private
Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess of
Prussia, 1871–1878, London: Evans Brothers Hibbert, Christopher, ed. (1984), Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-4107-7
Hough, Richard, ed. (1975), Advice to a Grand-daughter: Letters from
Queen Victoria to Princess Victoria of Hesse, London: Heinemann, ISBN
0-434-34861-9 Jagow, Kurt, ed. (1938), Letters of the Prince Consort 1831–1861, London: John Murray Mortimer, Raymond, ed. (1961), Queen Victoria: Leaves from a Journal, New York: Farrar, Straus & Cudahy Ponsonby, Frederick, ed. (1930), Letters of the Empress Frederick, London: Macmillan
Ramm, Agatha, ed. (1990), Beloved and Darling Child: Last Letters
between Queen Victoria and Her Eldest Daughter, 1886–1901, Stroud:
Sutton Publishing, ISBN 978-0-86299-880-6 Victoria, Queen (1868), Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848 to 1861, London: Smith, Elder Victoria, Queen (1884), More Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1862 to 1882, London: Smith, Elder Further reading Arnstein, Walter L. (2003), Queen Victoria, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-63806-4
Baird, Julia (2016), Victoria The Queen: An Intimate Biography of the
Woman Who Ruled an Empire, New York: Random House, ISBN
978-1-4000-6988-0 Cadbury, Deborah (2017), Queen Victoria's Matchmaking: The Royal Marriages That Shaped Europe, Bloomsbury
Carter, Sarah; Nugent, Maria Nugent, eds. (2016), Mistress of
everything: Queen Victoria in Indigenous worlds, Manchester University
Press Eyck, Frank (1959), The Prince Consort: a political biography, Chatto Gardiner, Juliet (1997), Queen Victoria, London: Collins and Brown, ISBN 978-1-85585-469-7 Homans, Margaret; Munich, Adrienne, eds. (1997), Remaking Queen Victoria, Cambridge University Press Homans, Margaret (1997), Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837–1876 Hough, Richard (1996), Victoria and Albert, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 978-0-312-30385-3 James, Robert Rhodes (1983), Albert, Prince Consort: A Biography, Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 9780394407630 Kingsley Kent, Susan (2015), Queen Victoria: Gender and Empire
Lyden, Anne M. (2014), A Royal Passion: Queen Victoria and Photography,
Los Angeles: Getty Publications, ISBN 978-1-60606-155-8 Ridley, Jane (2015), Victoria: Queen, Matriarch, Empress, Penguin
Taylor, Miles (2020), "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria", Journal of
British Studies, 59: 121–135, doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245, S2CID 213433777 Weintraub, Stanley (1987), Victoria: Biography of a Queen, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-04-923084-2 Wilson, A. N. (2014), Victoria: A Life, London: Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-84887-956-0 External links Listen to this article (1 hour and 2 minutes) 1:01:53 Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 20 July 2014, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Queen Victoria at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Portraits of Queen Victoria at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at Wikidata Queen Victoria's Journals, online from the Royal Archive and Bodleian Library Works by Queen Victoria at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Queen Victoria at Internet Archive Works by Queen Victoria at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Newspaper clippings about Queen Victoria in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Queen Victoria House of Hanover Cadet branch of the House of Welf Born: 24 May 1819 Died: 22 January 1901 Regnal titles Preceded by William IV Queen of the United Kingdom 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Succeeded by Edward VII Vacant Title last held by Bahadur Shah II as Mughal emperor Empress of India 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901 vte Queen Victoria Events Coronation Honours Hackpen White Horse Wedding Wedding dress Golden Jubilee
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KingdomMonarchs of the Isle of ManHeads of state of CanadaMonarchs of
AustraliaHeads of state of New ZealandQueens regnant in the British
Isles19th-century British monarchs20th-century British monarchsHouse of
HanoverHanoverian princessesHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United
Kingdom)Empresses regnantIndian empressesBritish princesses19th-century
diaristsBritish diaristsFounders of English schools and collegesPeople
associated with the Royal National College for the BlindPeople from
KensingtonBritish people of German descentFemale critics of
feminismKnights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of
Vila ViçosaDames of the Order of Saint IsabelGrand Croix of the Légion
d'honneurGrand Crosses of the Order of St. SavaRecipients of the Order
of the Cross of Takovo The standard circulating coinage of the
United Kingdom, British Crown Dependencies and British Overseas
Territories is denominated in pennies and pounds sterling (symbol "£"),
and ranges in value from one penny sterling to two pounds. Since
decimalisation, on 15 February 1971, the pound has been divided into 100
(new) pence. Before decimalisation, twelve pence made a shilling, and
twenty shillings made a pound. British coins are minted by the Royal Mint in Llantrisant, Wales. The Royal Mint also commissions the coins' designs. In
addition to the circulating coinage, the UK also mints commemorative
decimal coins (crowns) in the denomination of five pounds. Ceremonial
Maundy money and bullion coinage of gold sovereigns, half sovereigns,
and gold and silver Britannia coins are also produced. Some territories
outside the United Kingdom, which use the pound sterling, produce their
own coinage, with the same denominations and specifications as the UK
coinage but with local designs. Currently circulating coinage The
current decimal coins consist of one penny and two pence in
copper-plated steel, five pence and ten pence in nickel-plated steel,
equilateral curve heptagonal twenty pence and fifty pence in
cupronickel, and bimetallic one pound and two pound. All circulating
coins have an effigy of Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse, and various
national and regional designs, and the denomination, on the reverse. All
current coins carry an abbreviated Latin inscription whose full form,
ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX, translates to
"Elizabeth II, by the grace of God, Queen and Defender of the Faith". Denomination Obverse Reverse Diameter Thickness Mass Composition Edge Introduced One penny Queen Elizabeth II Crowned portcullis with chains (1971–2008) Segment
of the Royal Arms (2008–present) 20.3 mm 1.52 mm 3.56 g
Bronze (97% copper, 2.5% zinc, 0.5% tin) Smooth 1971 1.65 mm Copper-plated steel 1992 Two pence Plume of ostrich feathers within a coronet (1971–2008) Segment of the Royal Arms (2008–present) 25.9 mm 1.85 mm 7.12 g Bronze 1971 2.03 mm Copper-plated steel 1992 Five pence[a] Queen Elizabeth II Crowned thistle (1968–2008) Segment of the Royal Arms (2008–present) 18 mm 1.7 mm 3.25 g Cupronickel (3:1) Milled 1990 1.89 mm Nickel-plated steel 2012 Ten pence[a] Crowned lion (1968–2008) Segment of the Royal Arms (2008–present) 24.5 mm 1.85 mm 6.5 g Cupronickel (3:1) 1992 2.05 mm Nickel-plated steel 2012 Twenty pence Crowned Tudor Rose 21.4 mm 1.7 mm 5 g Cupronickel (5:1) Smooth, Reuleaux heptagon 1982 Segment of the Royal Arms 2008 Fifty
pence[a] Britannia and lion 27.3 mm 1.78 mm 8 g
Cupronickel (3:1) Smooth, Reuleaux heptagon 1997 Various commemorative designs 1998 Segment of the Royal Arms 2008 One
pound Queen Elizabeth II Rose, leek, thistle, and shamrock
encircled by a coronet 23.03–23.43 mm 2.8 mm 8.75 g
Inner: Nickel-plated alloy Outer: Nickel-brass Alternately milled and plain (12-sided) 28 March 2017[1] Two
pounds[b] Abstract concentric design representing technological
development 28.4 mm 2.5 mm 12 g Inner: Cupronickel Outer: Nickel-brass Milled with variable inscription and/or decoration 1997 (issued 1998) Various commemorative designs 1999 Britannia 2015 The
specifications and dates of introduction of the 5p, 10p, and 50p coins
refer to the current versions. These coins were originally issued in
larger sizes in 1968 and 1969 respectively. This coin was
originally issued in a smaller size in a single metal in 1986 for
special issues only. It was redesigned as a bi-metallic issue for
general circulation in 1997. Production and distribution All
genuine UK coins are produced by the Royal Mint. The same coinage is
used across the United Kingdom: unlike banknotes, local issues of coins
are not produced for different parts of the UK. The pound coin until
2016 was produced in regional designs, but these circulate equally in
all parts of the UK (see UK designs, below). Every year, newly
minted coins are checked for size, weight, and composition at a Trial of
the Pyx. Essentially the same procedure has been used since the 13th
century. Assaying is now done by the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths on
behalf of HM Treasury. The 1p and 2p coins from 1971 are the
oldest standard-issue coins still in circulation. Pre-decimal crowns are
the oldest coins in general that are still legal tender, although they
are in practice never encountered in general circulation.[2] Coins
from the British dependencies and territories that use sterling as
their currency are sometimes found in change in other jurisdictions.
Strictly, they are not legal tender in the United Kingdom; however,
since they have the same specifications as UK coins, they are sometimes
tolerated in commerce, and can readily be used in vending machines. UK-issued
coins are, on the other hand, generally fully accepted and freely mixed
in other British dependencies and territories that use the pound. An
extensive coinage redesign was commissioned by the Royal Mint in 2005,
and new designs were gradually introduced into the circulating British
coinage from summer 2008. Except for the £1 coin, the pre-2008 coins
remain legal tender and are expected to stay in circulation for the
foreseeable future. The estimated volume in circulation as at March 2016 is:[3] Denomination Number of pieces (millions) Face value (£m) Two pounds 479 957.036 One pound 1,671 1,671.328 Fifty pence 1,053 526.153 Twenty-five pence 81 20 Twenty pence 3,004 600.828 Ten pence 1,713 171.312 Five pence 4,075 203.764 Two pence 6,714 134.273 One penny 11,430 114.299 Total 30,139 4,643.658 History of pre-decimal coinage The penny before 1500 See also: Penny (English coin) and Scottish coinage The
English silver penny first appeared in the 8th century CE in adoption
of Western Europe's Carolingian monetary system wherein 12 pence made a
shilling and 20 shillings made a pound. The weight of the English penny
was fixed at 22+1⁄2 troy grains (about 1.46 grams) by Offa of Mercia, an
8th-century contemporary of Charlemagne; 240 pennies weighed 5,400
grains or a tower pound (different from the troy pound of 5,760 grains).
The silver penny was the only coin minted for 500 years, from c. 780 to
1280. From the time of Charlemagne until the 12th century, the
silver currency of England was made from the highest purity silver
available. But there were disadvantages to minting currency of fine
silver, notably the level of wear it suffered, and the ease with which
coins could be "clipped", or trimmed. In 1158 a new standard for English
coinage was established by Henry II with the "Tealby Penny" — the
sterling silver standard of 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper. This was a
harder-wearing alloy, yet it was still a rather high grade of silver. It
went some way towards discouraging the practice of "clipping", though
this practice was further discouraged and largely eliminated with the
introduction of the milled edge seen on coins today. The weight
of a silver penny stayed constant at above 22 grains until 1344;
afterwards its weight was reduced to 18 grains in 1351, to 15 grains in
1412, to 12 grains in 1464, and to 101⁄2 grains in 1527. The
history of the Royal Mint stretches back to AD 886.[4] For many
centuries production was in London, initially at the Tower of London,
and then at premises nearby in Tower Hill in what is today known as
Royal Mint Court. In the 1970s production was transferred to Llantrisant
in South Wales.[5] Historically Scotland and England had separate
coinage; the last Scottish coins were struck in 1709 shortly after union
with England.[6] The penny after 1500 During the reign of
Henry VIII, the silver content was gradually debased, reaching a low of
one-third silver. However, in Edward VI's reign in 1551, this debased
coinage was discontinued in favor of a return to sterling silver with
the penny weighing 8 grains. The first crowns and half-crowns were
produced that year. From this point onwards till 1920, sterling was the
rule. Coins were originally hand-hammered — an ancient technique
in which two dies are struck together with a blank coin between them.
This was the traditional method of manufacturing coins in the Western
world from the classical Greek era onwards, in contrast with Asia, where
coins were traditionally cast. Milled (that is, machine-made) coins
were produced first during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and
periodically during the subsequent reigns of James I and Charles I, but
there was initially opposition to mechanisation from the moneyers, who
ensured that most coins continued to be produced by hammering. All
British coins produced since 1662 have been milled. By 1601 it
was decreed that one troy ounce or 480 grains of sterling silver be
minted into 62 pennies (i.e. each penny weighed 7.742 grains). By 1696,
the currency had been seriously weakened by an increase in clipping
during the Nine Years' War[7] to the extent that it was decided to
recall and replace all hammered silver coinage in circulation.[8] The
exercise came close to disaster due to fraud and mismanagement,[9] but
was saved by the personal intervention of Isaac Newton after his
appointment as Warden of the Mint, a post which was intended to be a
sinecure, but which he took seriously.[8] Newton was subsequently given
the post of Master of the Mint in 1699. Following the 1707 union between
the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, Newton used his
previous experience to direct the 1707–1710 Scottish recoinage,
resulting in a common currency for the new Kingdom of Great Britain.
After 15 September 1709 no further silver coins were ever struck in
Scotland.[10] As a result of a report written by Newton on 21
September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury[11]
the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was
changed by Royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the
exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings.[12] Due to
differing valuations in other European countries this unintentionally
resulted in a silver shortage, as silver coins were used to pay for
imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain
from the silver standard to its first gold standard, rather than the
bimetallic standard implied by the proclamation. The coinage
reform of 1816 set up a weight/value ratio and physical sizes for silver
coins. Each troy ounce of sterling silver was henceforth minted into 66
pence or 51⁄2 shillings. In 1920, the silver content of all
British coins was reduced from 92.5% to 50%, with some of the remainder
consisting of manganese, which caused the coins to tarnish to a very
dark colour after they had been in circulation for long. Silver was
eliminated altogether in 1947, except for Maundy coinage, which returned
to the pre-1920 92.5% silver composition. The 1816 weight/value
ratio and size system survived the debasement of silver in 1920, and the
adoption of token coins of cupronickel in 1947. It even persisted after
decimalisation for those coins which had equivalents and continued to
be minted with their values in new pence. The UK finally abandoned it in
1992 when smaller, more convenient, "silver" coins were introduced. History of decimal coinage Decimalisation Since
decimalisation on 15 February 1971 the pound (symbol "£") has been
divided into 100 pence. (Prior to decimalisation the pound was divided
into 20 shillings, each of 12 [old] pence; thus, there were 240 [old]
pence to the pound). The pound remained as Britain's currency unit after
decimalisation (unlike in many other British commonwealth countries,
which dropped the pound upon decimalisation by introducing dollars or
new units worth 10 shillings or 1⁄2 pound). The following coins were
introduced with these reverse designs: Half penny, 1971–1984: A crown, symbolising the monarch. One penny, 1971–2007: A crowned portcullis with chains (the badge of the Houses of Parliament). Two pence, 1971–2007: The Prince of Wales's feathers: a plume of ostrich feathers within a coronet. Five pence, 1968–2007: The Badge of Scotland, a thistle royally crowned. Ten pence, 1968–2007: The lion of England royally crowned. Fifty pence, 1969–2007: Britannia and lion. The
first decimal coins – the five pence (5p) and ten pence (10p) — were
introduced in 1968 in the run-up to decimalisation in order to
familiarise the public with the new system. These initially circulated
alongside the pre-decimal coinage and had the same size and value as the
existing one shilling and two shilling coins respectively. The fifty
pence (50p) coin followed in 1969, replacing the old ten shilling note.
The remaining decimal coins – at the time, the half penny (1⁄2p), penny
(1p) and two pence (2p) — were issued in 1971 at decimalisation. A
quarter-penny coin, to be struck in aluminium, was proposed at the time
decimalisation was being planned, but was never minted. The new
coins were initially marked with the wording NEW PENNY (singular) or NEW
PENCE (plural). The word "new" was dropped in 1982. The symbol "p" was
adopted to distinguish the new pennies from the old, which used the
symbol "d" (from the Latin denarius, a coin used in the Roman Empire). Updates 1982–1998 In
the years since decimalisation, a number of changes have been made to
the coinage; these new denominations were introduced with the following
designs: Twenty pence, 1982–2007: A crowned Tudor Rose, a
traditional heraldic emblem of England (NB With incuse design and
lettering). One pound, 1983–2016: various designs; see One pound (British coin).
Two pounds, 1997–2014: An abstract design of concentric circles,
representing technological development from the Iron Age to the modern
day electronic age. Additionally: The halfpenny was discontinued in 1984. The composition of the 1p and 2p was changed in 1992 from bronze to copper-plated steel without changing the design. The sizes of the 5p, 10p and 50p coins were reduced in 1990, 1992 and 1997, respectively, also without changing the design. The
twenty pence (20p) coin was introduced in 1982 to fill the gap between
the 10p and 50p coins. The pound coin (£1) was introduced in 1983 to
replace the Bank of England £1 banknote which was discontinued in 1984
(although the Scottish banks continued producing them for some time
afterwards; the last of them, the Royal Bank of Scotland £1 note, is
still issued in a small volume as of 2021). The designs on the £1 coin
changed annually in a largely five-year cycle, until the introduction of
the new 12-sided £1 coin in 2017. The decimal halfpenny coin was
demonetised in 1984 as its value was by then too small to be useful.
The pre-decimal sixpence, shilling and two shilling coins, which had
continued to circulate alongside the decimal coinage with values of
2+1⁄2p, 5p and 10p respectively, were finally withdrawn in 1980, 1990
and 1993 respectively. The double florin and crown, with values of 20p
and 25p respectively, have technically not been withdrawn, but in
practice are never seen in general circulation. In the 1990s, the
Royal Mint reduced the sizes of the 5p, 10p, and 50p coins. As a
consequence, the oldest 5p coins in circulation date from 1990, the
oldest 10p coins from 1992 and the oldest 50p coins come from 1997.
Since 1997, many special commemorative designs of 50p have been issued.
Some of these are found fairly frequently in circulation and some are
rare. They are all legal tender. In 1992 the composition of the
1p and 2p coins was changed from bronze to copper-plated steel. Due to
their high copper content (97%), the intrinsic value of pre-1992 1p and
2p coins increased with the surge in metal prices of the mid-2000s,
until by 2006 the coins would, if melted down, have been worth about 50%
more than their face value.[13] (To do this, however, would be illegal,
and they would have had to be melted in huge quantities, using quite a
bit of energy, to achieve significant gain.) In later years, the price
of copper fell considerably.[citation needed] A circulating
bimetallic two pound (£2) coin was introduced in 1998 (first minted in,
and dated, 1997). There had previously been unimetallic commemorative £2
coins which did not normally circulate. This tendency to use the two
pound coin for commemorative issues has continued since the introduction
of the bimetallic coin, and a few of the older unimetallic coins have
since entered circulation. There are also commemorative issues of
crowns. Until 1981, these had a face value of twenty-five pence (25p),
equivalent to the five shilling crown used in pre-decimal Britain.
However, in 1990 crowns were redenominated with a face value of five
pounds (£5)[14] as the previous value was considered not sufficient for
such a high-status coin. The size and weight of the coin remained
exactly the same. Decimal crowns are generally not found in circulation
as their market value is likely to be higher than their face value, but
they remain legal tender. Obverse designs All modern British
coins feature a profile of the current monarch's head on the obverse.
There has been only one monarch since decimalisation, Queen Elizabeth
II, so her head appears on all decimal coins, facing to the right (see
also Monarch's head, above). However, five different effigies have been
used, reflecting the Queen's changing appearance as she has aged. These
are the effigies by Mary Gillick (until 1968), Arnold Machin
(1968–1984), Raphael Maklouf (1985–1997), Ian Rank-Broadley (1998–2015),
and Jody Clark (from 2015).[15] All current coins carry a Latin
inscription whose full form is ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA FIDEI
DEFENSATRIX, meaning "Elizabeth II, by the grace of God, Queen and
Defender of the Faith". The inscription appears on the coins in any of
several abbreviated forms, typically ELIZABETH II D G REG F D. 2008 redesign In
2008, UK coins underwent an extensive redesign which eventually changed
the reverse designs of all coins, the first wholesale change to British
coinage since the first decimal coins were introduced in April
1968.[16] The major design feature was the introduction of a reverse
design shared across six coins (1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p, 50p), that can be
pieced together to form an image of the Royal Shield. This was the first
time a coin design had been featured across multiple coins in this
way.[16]To summarize the reverse design changes made in 2008 and
afterwards: The 1p coin depicts the lower part of the first
quarter and the upper part of the third quarter of the shield, showing
the lions passant of England and the harp of Ireland respectively The 2p coin depicts most of the second quarter of the shield, showing the lion rampant of Scotland The 5p coin depicts the centre of the shield, showing the meeting and parts of the constituent parts of the shield The 10p coin depicts most of the first quarter of the shield, containing the three lions passant of England
The 20p coin depicts the lower part of the second quarter and upper
part of the fourth quarter, showing the lion rampant of Scotland and the
lions passant of England respectively The 50p coin depicts the
point of the shield and the bottom portions of the second and third
quarters showing the harp of Ireland and lions passant of England
respectively The round, nickel-brass £1 coin from 2008–2016
depicted the whole of the Royal Shield. From 2017 it was changed to a
bimetallic 12-sided coin depicting a rose, leek, thistle and shamrock
bound by a crown. The £2 coin from 2015 depicts Britannia. The
original intention was to exclude both the £1 and £2 coins from the
redesign because they were "relatively new additions" to the coinage,
but it was later decided to include a £1 coin with a complete Royal
Shield design from 2008 to 2016,[17] and the 2015 redesign of the £2
coin occurred due to complaints over the disappearance of Britannia's
image from the 50p coin in 2008.[18] On all coins, the beading
(ring of small dots) around the edge of the obverses has been removed.
The obverse of the 20p coin has also been amended to incorporate the
year, which had been on the reverse of the coin since its introduction
in 1982 (giving rise to an unusual issue of a mule version without any
date at all). The orientation of both sides of the 50p coin has been
rotated through 180 degrees, meaning the bottom of the coin is now a
corner rather than a flat edge. The numerals showing the decimal value
of each coin, previously present on all coins except the £1 and £2, have
been removed, leaving the values spelled out in words only. The
redesign was the result of a competition launched by the Royal Mint in
August 2005, which closed on 14 November 2005. The competition was open
to the public and received over 4,000 entries.[16] The winning entry was
unveiled on 2 April 2008, designed by Matthew Dent.[16] The Royal Mint
stated the new designs were "reflecting a twenty-first century Britain".
An advisor to the Royal Mint described the new coins as "post-modern"
and said that this was something that could not have been done 50 years
previously.[19] The redesign was criticised by some for having no
specifically Welsh symbol (such as the Welsh Dragon), because the Royal
Shield does not include a specifically Welsh symbol. Wrexham Member of
Parliament (MP) Ian Lucas, who was also campaigning to have the Welsh
Dragon included on the Union Flag, called the omission "disappointing",
and stated that he would be writing to the Queen to request that the
Royal Standard be changed to include Wales.[20] The Royal Mint stated
that "the Shield of the Royal Arms is symbolic of the whole of the
United Kingdom and as such, represents Wales, Scotland, England and
Northern Ireland."[20] Designer Dent stated "I am a Welshman and proud
of it, but I never thought about the fact we did not have a dragon or
another representation of Wales on the design because as far as I am
concerned Wales is represented on the Royal Arms. This was never an
issue for me."[20] The Royal Mint's choice of an inexperienced
coin designer to produce the new coinage was criticised by Virginia
Ironside, daughter of Christopher Ironside who designed the previous UK
coins. She stated that the new designs were "totally unworkable as
actual coins", due to the loss of a numerical currency identifier, and
the smaller typeface used.[21] The German news magazine Der
Spiegel claimed that the redesign signalled the UK's intention "not to
join the euro any time soon".[22] Changes after 2008 As of
2012, 5p and 10p coins have been issued in nickel-plated steel, and much
of the remaining cupronickel types withdrawn, in order to retrieve more
expensive metals. The new coins are 11% thicker to maintain the same
weight.[23][24] There are heightened nickel allergy concerns over the
new coins. Studies commissioned by the Royal Mint found no increased
discharge of nickel from the coins when immersed in artificial sweat.
However, an independent study found that the friction from handling
results in four times as much nickel exposure as from the older-style
coins. Sweden already plans to desist from using nickel in coins from
2015.[25] In 2016, the £1 coin's composition was changed from a
single-metal round shape to a 12-sided bi-metal design, with a slightly
larger diameter, and with multiple past designs discontinued in favor of
a single, unchanging design. Production of the new coins started in
2016,[26] with the first, dated 2016, entering circulation 28 March
2017.[27] In February 2015, the Royal Mint announced a new design
for the £2 coin featuring Britannia by Antony Dufort, with no change to
its bimetallic composition.[28] Edge inscriptions on British
coins used to be commonly encountered on round £1 coins of 1983–2016,
but are nowadays found only on £2 coins. The standard-issue £2 coin from
1997 to 2015 carried the edge inscription STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF
GIANTS. The redesigned coin since 2015 has a new edge inscription
QUATUOR MARIA VINDICO, Latin for "I will claim the four seas", an
inscription previously found on coins bearing the image of Britannia.
Other commemorative £2 coins have their own unique edge inscriptions or
designs. Obsolete denominations The following decimal coins have been withdrawn from circulation and have ceased to be legal tender. Denomination Obverse Reverse Diameter Thickness Mass Composition Edge Introduced Withdrawn Half Penny Queen Elizabeth II St Edward's Crown 17.4 mm 1 mm 1.78 g Bronze Smooth 1971 1984 Five
pence* Queen Elizabeth II Crowned Thistle 23.59 mm 1.7
mm 5.65 g Cupronickel Milled 1968 1990 Ten pence* Crowned Lion 28.5 mm 1.85 mm 11.31 g 1992 Fifty
pence* Seated Britannia alongside a Lion 30.0 mm 2.5 mm
13.5 g Smooth, Reuleaux heptagon 1969 1997 Various commemorative designs 1973 One
Pound† Queen Elizabeth II Numerous different designs 22.5
mm 3.15 mm 9.5 g Nickel-brass Milled with variable
inscription and/or decoration 1983 15 October 2017 Royal Shield 2008 Two pounds No standard reverse design 28.4 mm ~3 mm 15.98 g Nickel-brass 1986 1998 * The specifications and dates of 5p, 10p, and 50p coins refer to the larger sizes issued since 1968. †
The specification refers to the round coin issued from 1983–2016.
Although obsolete, this coin is still redeemable at banks and the
British railway systems, and is still legal tender on the Isle of Man. Commemorative issues Circulating commemorative designs Circulating
fifty pence and two pound coins have been issued with various
commemorative reverse designs, typically to mark the anniversaries of
historical events or the births of notable people. Three
commemorative designs were issued of the large version of the 50p: in
1973 (the EEC), 1992–3 (EC presidency) and 1994 (D-Day anniversary).
Commemorative designs of the smaller 50p coin have been issued
(alongside the Britannia standard issue) in 1998 (two designs), 2000,
and from 2003 to 2007 yearly (two designs in 2006). For a complete list,
see Fifty pence (British decimal coin). Prior to 1997, the two
pound coin was minted in commemorative issues only – in 1986, 1989,
1994, 1995 and 1996. Commemorative £2 coins have been regularly issued
since 1999, alongside the standard-issue bi-metallic coins which were
introduced in 1997. One or two designs have been minted each year, with
the exception of none in 2000, and four regional 2002 issues marking the
2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester. As well as a distinct reverse
design, these coins have an edge inscription relevant to the subject.
The anniversary themes are continued until at least 2009, with two
designs announced. For a complete list, see Two pounds (British decimal
coin). From 2018–2019 a series of 10p coins with 26 different
designs was put in circulation "celebrating Great Britain with The Royal
Mint’s Quintessentially British A to Z series of coins".[29] Non-circulating denominations 1981 commemorative twenty-five pence coin, celebrating the marriage of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer. The
following are special-issue commemorative coins, seldom encountered in
normal circulation due to their precious metal content or collectible
value, but are still considered legal tender. Twenty-five pence or crown (25p; £0.25), 1972–1981 Five pounds or crown (£5), 1990–present [1] Twenty pounds (£20), 2013–present Fifty pounds (£50), 2015–2016 One hundred pounds (£100), 2015–2016 Denomination Obverse Reverse Diameter Thickness Mass Composition Edge Introduced 25
pence Queen Elizabeth II No standard reverse design 38.61
mm 2.89 mm 28.28 g Cupronickel or silver Milled, with
variable inscription 1972 5 pounds 1990 20 pounds 27.0 mm Unknown 15.71 g Silver Milled 2013 50 pounds Britannia 34.0 mm 31 g 2015 100 pounds Elizabeth Tower 'Big Ben' 40.0 mm 62.86 g Legal tender status of commemorative coins The
prolific issuance since 2013 of silver commemorative £20, £50 and £100
coins at face value has led to attempts to spend or deposit these coins,
prompting the Royal Mint to clarify the legal tender status of these
silver coins as well as the cupronickel £5 coin.[30][31][32] Royal Mint
guidelines advise that, although these coins were approved as legal
tender, they are considered limited edition collectables not intended
for general circulation, and hence shops and banks are not obliged to
accept them. Maundy money Maundy money is a ceremonial coinage
traditionally given to the poor, and nowadays awarded annually to
deserving senior citizens. There are Maundy coins in denominations of
one, two, three and four pence. They bear dates from 1822 to the present
and are minted in very small quantities. Though they are legal tender
in the UK, they are rarely or never encountered in circulation. The
pre-decimal Maundy pieces have the same legal tender status and value as
post-decimal ones, and effectively increased in face value by 140% upon
decimalisation. Their numismatic value is much greater. Maundy coins still bear the original portrait of the Queen as used in the circulating coins of the first years of her reign. Bullion coinage The
traditional bullion coin issued by Britain is the gold sovereign,
formerly a circulating coin worth 20 shillings (or one pound) and with
0.23542 troy ounces (7.322 g) of fine gold, but now with a nominal value
of one pound. The Royal Mint continues to produce sovereigns, as well
as quarter sovereigns (introduced in 2009), half sovereigns, double
sovereigns and quintuple sovereigns. Between 1987 and 2012 a
series of bullion coins, the Britannia, was issued, containing 1 troy
ounce (31.1 g), 1⁄2 ounce, 1⁄4 ounce and 1⁄10 ounce of fine gold at a
millesimal fineness of 916 (22 carat) and with face values of £100, £50,
£25, and £10. Since 2013 Britannia bullion contains 1 troy ounce of fine gold at a millesimal fineness of 999 (24 carat). Between
1997 and 2012 silver bullion coins have also been produced under the
name "Britannias". The alloy used was Britannia silver (millesimal
fineness 958). The silver coins were available in 1 troy ounce (31.1 g),
1⁄2 ounce, 1⁄4 ounce and 1⁄10 ounce sizes. Since 2013 the alloy used is
silver at a (millesimal fineness 999). In 2016 the Royal Mint
launched a series of 10 Queen's Beasts bullion coins,[33] one for each
beast available in both gold and silver. The Royal Mint also
issues silver, gold and platinum proof sets of the circulating coins, as
well as gift products such as gold coins set into jewellery. Non-UK coinage The British Islands (red) and overseas territories (blue) using the Pound or their local issue. Outside
the United Kingdom, the British Crown Dependencies of Jersey and
Guernsey use the pound sterling as their currencies. However, they
produce local issues of coinage in the same denominations and
specifications, but with different designs. These circulate freely
alongside UK coinage and English, Northern Irish, and Scottish banknotes
within these territories, but must be converted in order to be used in
the UK. The island of Alderney also produces occasional commemorative
coins. (See coins of the Jersey pound, coins of the Guernsey pound, and
Alderney pound for details.). The Isle of Man is a unique case among the
Crown Dependencies, issuing its own currency, the Manx pound.[citation
needed] While the Isle of Man recognises the Pound Sterling as a
secondary currency, coins of the Manx pound are not legal tender in the
UK. The pound sterling is also the official currency of the
British overseas territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich
Islands,[34] British Antarctic Territory[35] and Tristan da Cunha.[36]
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands produces occasional special
collectors' sets of coins.[37] In 2008, British Antarctic Territory
issued a £2 coin commemorating the centenary of Britain's claim to the
region.[38] The currencies of the British overseas territories of
Gibraltar, the Falkland Islands and Saint Helena/Ascension — namely the
Gibraltar pound, Falkland Islands pound and Saint Helena pound — are
pegged one-to-one to the pound sterling but are technically separate
currencies. These territories issue their own coinage, again with the
same denominations and specifications as the UK coinage but with local
designs, as coins of the Gibraltar pound, coins of the Falkland Islands
pound and coins of the Saint Helena pound. The other British overseas territories do not use sterling as their official currency. Pre-decimal coinage Half crown, 1953 Two shilling coin, or florin, 1949 Shilling, 1956, showing English and Scottish reverses For further information about the history of pre-decimal coinage, see Pound sterling and Decimal Day. System Before
decimalisation in 1971, the pound was divided into 240 pence rather
than 100, though it was rarely expressed in this way. Rather it was
expressed in terms of pounds, shillings and pence, where: £1 = 20 shillings (20s). 1 shilling = 12 pence (12d). Thus:
£1 = 240d. The penny was further subdivided at various times, though
these divisions vanished as inflation made them irrelevant: 1
penny = 2 halfpennies and (earlier) 4 farthings (half farthing, a third
of a farthing, and quarter farthing coins were minted in the late 19th
century, and into the early 20th century in the case of the third
farthing, but circulated only in certain British colonies and not in the
UK). Using the example of five shillings and sixpence, the standard ways of writing shillings and pence were: 5s 6d 5/6 5/- for 5 shillings only, with the dash to stand for zero pennies. The sum of 5/6 would be spoken as "five shillings and sixpence" or "five and six". The
abbreviation for the old penny, d, was derived from the Roman denarius,
and the abbreviation for the shilling, s, from the Roman solidus. The
shilling was also denoted by the slash symbol, also called a solidus for
this reason, which was originally an adaptation of the long s.[39] The
symbol "£", for the pound, is derived from the first letter of the Latin
word for pound, libra.[40] A similar pre-decimal system operated
in France, also based on the Roman currency, consisting of the livre
(L), sol or sou (s) and denier (d). Until 1816 another similar system
was used in the Netherlands, consisting of the gulden (G), stuiver (s;
1⁄20 G) and duit, (d; 1⁄8 s or 1⁄160 G). Denominations For an extensive list of historical pre-decimal coin denominations, see List of British banknotes and coins. In the years just prior to decimalisation, the circulating British coins were: Denomination Obverse Reverse Diameter Thickness Mass Composition Edge Introduced Withdrawn Farthing
(1⁄4d) Various Monarchs Wren (Britannia on early mintages)
20.19 mm 2.83 g Bronze Smooth 1860 1961 Half penny (1⁄2d) Golden Hind (Britannia on early mintages) 25.48 mm 5.67 g 1969 Penny (1d) Britannia 31 mm 9.45 g 1971 Threepence (3d) King George VI 1937–1952 Queen
Elizabeth II 1953–1971 Thrift until 1952 Crowned portcullis with
chains 21.0–21.8 mm 2.5 mm 6.8 g Nickel-brass Plain
(12-sided) 1937 1971 Sixpence (6d) King George VI 1946–1952 Queen
Elizabeth II 1953–1971 Crowned royal cypher until 1952 Floral
design – Four Home Nations 19.41 mm 2.83 g Cupronickel
Milled 1947 1980 Shilling (1/-) Crowned lion on Tudor
crown or Crowned lion standing on Scottish crown until 1952 Coat of
Arms of England or Scotland 23.60 mm 1.7 mm 5.66 g 1990 Florin
(2/-) Crowned rose flanked by a thistle and shamrock until 1952
Rose encircled by thistle, leek and shamrock 28.5 mm 1.85 mm
11.31 g 1992 Half crown (2/6) Royal Shield flanked by
crowned royal cypher until 1952 Crowned Royal Shield 32.31 mm
14.14 g 1969 Crown (5/-) Various commemorative designs 38 mm 2.89 mm 28.28 g 1951 Present The
farthing (1⁄4d) had been demonetised on 1 January 1961, whilst the
crown (5/-) was issued periodically as a commemorative coin but rarely
found in circulation. The crown, half crown, florin, shilling,
and sixpence were cupronickel coins (in historical times silver or
silver alloy); the penny, halfpenny, and farthing were bronze; and the
threepence was a twelve-sided nickel-brass coin (historically it was a
small silver coin). Some of the pre-decimalisation coins with
exact decimal equivalent values continued in use after 1971 alongside
the new coins, albeit with new names (the shilling became equivalent to
the 5p coin, with the florin equating to 10p), and the others were
withdrawn almost immediately. The use of florins and shillings as legal
tender in this way ended in 1991 and 1993 when the 5p and 10p coins were
replaced with smaller versions. Indeed, while pre-decimalisation
shillings were used as 5p coins, for a while after decimalisation many
people continued to call the new 5p coin a shilling, since it remained
1⁄20 of a pound, but was now counted as 5p (five new pence) instead of
12d (twelve old pennies). The pre-decimalisation sixpence, also known as
a sixpenny bit or sixpenny piece, was equivalent to 2+1⁄2p, but was
demonetised in 1980. Pre-decimal coins of the pound sterling Five pounds Double sovereign Sovereign Crown Half crown Florin Shilling Sixpence Groat Threepence Penny Halfpenny Farthing Half farthing Third farthing Quarter farthing Five
pounds 1 2+1⁄2 5 20 40 50 100 200
300 400 1200 2400 4800 9600 14400 19200 Double
sovereign 2⁄5 1 2 8 16 20 40 80 120
160 480 960 1920 3840 5760 7680 Sovereign
1⁄5 1⁄2 1 4 8 10 20 40 60 80
240 480 960 1920 2880 3840 Crown 1⁄20 1⁄8 1⁄4 1 2 2+1⁄2 5 10 15 20 60 120 240 480 720 960 Half
crown 1⁄40 1⁄16 1⁄8 1⁄2 1 1+1⁄4 2+1⁄2 5
7+1⁄2 10 30 60 120 240 360 480 Florin 1⁄50 1⁄20 1⁄10 2⁄5 4⁄5 1 2 4 6 8 24 48 96 192 288 384 Shilling 1⁄100 1⁄40 1⁄20 1⁄5 2⁄5 1⁄2 1 2 3 4 12 24 48 96 144 192 Sixpence
1⁄200 1⁄80 1⁄40 1⁄10 1⁄5 1⁄4 1⁄2 1
1+1⁄2 2 6 12 24 48 72 96 Groat 1⁄300
1⁄120 1⁄60 1⁄15 2⁄15 1⁄6 1⁄3 2⁄3 1
1+1⁄3 4 8 16 32 48 64 Threepence 1⁄400
1⁄160 1⁄80 1⁄20 1⁄10 1⁄8 1⁄4 1⁄2 3⁄4
1 3 6 12 24 36 48 Penny 1⁄1200 1⁄480
1⁄240 1⁄60 1⁄30 1⁄24 1⁄12 1⁄6 1⁄4 1⁄3
1 2 4 8 12 16 Halfpenny 1⁄2400 1⁄960
1⁄480 1⁄120 1⁄60 1⁄48 1⁄24 1⁄12 1⁄8 1⁄6
1⁄2 1 2 4 6 8 Farthing 1⁄4800 1⁄1920
1⁄960 1⁄240 1⁄120 1⁄96 1⁄48 1⁄24 1⁄16
1⁄12 1⁄4 1⁄2 1 2 3 4 Half farthing 1⁄9600
1⁄3840 1⁄1920 1⁄480 1⁄240 1⁄192 1⁄96 1⁄48
1⁄36 1⁄24 1⁄8 1⁄4 1⁄2 1 1+1⁄2 2 Third
farthing 1⁄14400 1⁄5760 1⁄2880 1⁄720 1⁄360
1⁄288 1⁄144 1⁄72 1⁄48 1⁄36 1⁄12 1⁄6 1⁄3
2⁄3 1 1+1⁄3 Quarter farthing 1⁄19200 1⁄7680
1⁄3840 1⁄960 1⁄480 1⁄384 1⁄192 1⁄96 1⁄72
1⁄48 1⁄16 1⁄8 1⁄4 1⁄2 3⁄4 1 Visualisation of some British currency terms before decimalisation Slang and everyday usage Some
pre-decimalisation coins or denominations became commonly known by
colloquial and slang terms, perhaps the most well known being bob for a
shilling, and quid for a pound. A farthing was a mag, a silver
threepence was a joey and the later nickel-brass threepence was called a
threepenny bit (/ˈθrʌpni/ or /ˈθrɛpni/ bit, i.e. thrup'ny or threp'ny
bit – the apostrophe was pronounced on a scale from full "e" down to
complete omission); a sixpence was a tanner, the two-shilling coin or
florin was a two-bob bit. Bob is still used in phrases such as
"earn/worth a bob or two",[41][better source needed] and "bob‐a‐job
week". The two shillings and sixpence coin or half-crown was a
half-dollar, also sometimes referred to as two and a kick. A value of
two pence was universally pronounced /ˈtʌpəns/ tuppence, a usage which
is still heard today, especially among older people. The unaccented
suffix "-pence", pronounced /pəns/, was similarly appended to the other
numbers up to twelve; thus "fourpence", "sixpence-three-farthings",
"twelvepence-ha'penny", but "eighteen pence" would usually be said
"one-and-six". Quid remains as popular slang for one or more
pounds to this day in Britain in the form "a quid" and then "two quid",
and so on. Similarly, in some parts of the country, bob continued to
represent one-twentieth of a pound, that is five new pence, and two bob
is 10p.[42] The introduction of decimal currency caused a new
casual usage to emerge, where any value in pence is spoken using the
suffix pee: e.g. "twenty-three pee" or, in the early years,
"two-and-a-half pee" rather than the previous "tuppence-ha'penny".
Amounts over a pound are normally spoken thus: "five pounds forty". A
value with less than ten pence over the pound is sometimes spoken like
this: "one pound and a penny", "three pounds and fourpence". The slang
term "bit" has almost disappeared from use completely, although in
Scotland a fifty pence is sometimes referred to as a "ten bob bit".
Decimal denomination coins are generally described using the terms piece
or coin, for example, "a fifty-pee piece", a "ten-pence coin". Monarch's profile All
coins since the 17th century have featured a profile of the current
monarch's head. The direction in which they face changes with each
successive monarch, a pattern that began with the Stuarts, as shown in
the table below: Facing left Facing right Cromwell 1653–1658[43] Broad 1656 Oliver Cromwell coin.jpg Charles II 1660–1685 Guinea 641642.jpg James II 1685–1688 James2coin.jpg William and Mary 1689–1694 William III 1694–1702 William and Mary Guinea 612668.jpg Anne 1702–1714 Half-crown of Anne.jpg George I 1714–1727 George I Quarter Guinea 641648.jpg George II 1727–1760 George II Guinea 722655.jpg George III 1760–1820 Sovereign George III 1817 641656.jpg George IV 1820–1830 Sovereign George IV 1828 651295.jpg William IV 1830–1837 William4coin.jpg Victoria 1837–1901 Sovereign Victoria 1842 662015.jpg Edward VII 1901–1910 Matte proof 5 pound Edwards VII.jpg George V 1910–1936 1 penny 1927 george 5.jpg Edward VIII 1936 EdwardVIIIcoin.jpg (uncirculated issues) George VI 1936–1952 1937 George VI penny.jpg Elizabeth II 1952–present 1953 half crown obverse.jpg For
the Tudors and pre-Restoration Stuarts, both left- and right-facing
portrait images were minted within the reign of a single monarch
(left-facing images were more common). In the Middle Ages, portrait
images tended to be full face. There was a small quirk in this
alternating pattern when Edward VIII became king in January 1936 and was
portrayed facing left, the same as his predecessor George V. This was
because Edward thought his left side to be better than his right.[44]
However, Edward VIII abdicated in December 1936 and his coins were never
put into general circulation. When George VI came to the throne, he had
his coins struck with him facing the left, as if Edward VIII's coins
had faced right (as they should have done according to tradition). Thus,
in a timeline of circulating British coins, George V and VI's coins
both feature left-facing portraits, although they follow directly
chronologically. Regal titles A 1937 George VI penny From a
very early date, British coins have been inscribed with the name of the
ruler of the kingdom in which they were produced, and a longer or
shorter title, always in Latin; among the earliest distinctive English
coins are the silver pennies of Offa of Mercia, which were inscribed
with the legend OFFA REX "King Offa". As the legends became longer,
words in the inscriptions were often abbreviated so that they could fit
on the coin; identical legends have often been abbreviated in different
ways depending upon the size and decoration of the coin. Inscriptions
which go around the edge of the coin generally have started at the
center of the top edge and proceeded in a clockwise direction. A very
lengthy legend would be continued on the reverse side of the coin. All
but Edward III and both Elizabeths use Latinised names (which would have
been EDWARDUS and ELIZABETHA respectively). Examples of coinage legends Latin text English text Notes EDWARD DEI GRA REX ANGL Z FRANC D HYB(E) Edward III, by the grace of God King of England and France, Lord of Ireland EDWARD
DEI GRA REX ANGL DNS HYB Z ACQ Edward, by the grace of God King of
England, Lord of Ireland and Aquitaine Used after the Treaty of
Brétigny (1360) when Edward III temporarily gave up his claim to the
French throne. EDWARD DEI G REX ANG Z FRA DNS HYB Z ACT Edward,
by the grace of God King of England and France, Lord of Ireland and
Aquitaine. Used after Anglo-French relations broke down and Edward
III resumed his claim. HENRICUS VII DEI GRATIA REX ANGLIÆ &
FRANCIÆ Henry VII by the Grace of God, King of England and France
France had been claimed by the English continuously since 1369. HENRICUS
VIII DEI GRATIA REX ANGLIÆ & FRANCIÆ Henry VIII by the Grace of
God, King of England and France The Arabic numeral 8 was also used
instead of the Roman VIII. HENRICUS VIII DEI GRATIA ANGLIÆ FRANCIÆ
& HIBERNIÆ REX Henry VIII by the Grace of God, Of England,
France and Ireland, King Used after Henry VIII made Ireland a
kingdom in 1541. The Arabic numeral 8 was also used instead of the Roman
VIII. PHILIPPUS ET MARIA DEI GRATIA REX & REGINA Philip and
Mary by the Grace of God, King and Queen The names of the realms
were omitted from the coin for reasons of space. ELIZABETH DEI GRATIA
ANGLIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REGINA Elizabeth, by the Grace of God,
of England, France, and Ireland, Queen IACOBUS DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ
BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX James, by the Grace of God, of
Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King James, King of Scotland, by
succeeding to the English throne united the two kingdoms in his person;
he dubbed the combination of the two kingdoms "Great Britain" (the name
of the whole island) though they remained legislatively distinct for
more than a century afterwards. CAROLUS DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ
FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX Charles, by the Grace of God, of Great
Britain, France, and Ireland, King OLIVARIUS DEI GRATIA
REIPUBLICÆ ANGLIÆ SCOTIÆ HIBERNIÆ & CETERORUM PROTECTOR Oliver,
by the Grace of God, of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, Ireland
etc., Protector Cromwell ruled as a monarch but did not claim the
title of king. CAROLUS II DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET
HIBERNIÆ REX Charles II, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain,
France, and Ireland, King IACOBUS II DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ
FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX James II, by the Grace of God, of Great
Britain, France, and Ireland, King GULIELMUS ET MARIA DEI GRATIA
MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX ET REGINA William and Mary
by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King and
Queen The spouses William and Mary ruled jointly. GULIELMUS III
DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX William III by
the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King
William continued to rule alone after his wife's death. ANNA DEI
GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REGINA Anne by the Grace
of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Queen GEORGIUS DEI
GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX FIDEI DEFENSOR
BRUNSVICENSIS ET LUNEBURGENSIS DUX SACRI ROMANI IMPERII
ARCHITHESAURARIUS ET ELECTOR George by the Grace of God, of Great
Britain, France, and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith, of Brunswick
and Lüneburg Duke, of the Holy Roman Empire Archtreasurer and Elector
George I added the titles he already possessed as Elector of
Hanover. He also added the title "Defender of the Faith", which had been
borne by the English kings since Henry VIII, but which had previously
only rarely appeared on coins. GEORGIUS II DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ
FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX FIDEI DEFENSOR BRUNSVICENSIS ET LUNEBURGENSIS
DUX SACRI ROMANI IMPERII ARCHITHESAURARIUS ET ELECTOR George II by
the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland King, Defender
of the Faith, of Brunswick and Lüneburg Duke, of the Holy Roman Empire
Archtreasurer and Elector GEORGIUS III DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ
FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX FIDEI DEFENSOR BRUNSVICENSIS ET LUNEBURGENSIS
DUX SACRI ROMANI IMPERII ARCHITHESAURARIUS ET ELECTOR George III by
the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland King, Defender
of the Faith, of Brunswick and Lüneburg Duke, of the Holy Roman Empire
Archtreasurer and Elector GEORGIUS III DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM
REX FIDEI DEFENSOR George III, by the Grace of God, of the Britains
King, Defender of the Faith The Acts of Union united Great Britain
and Ireland into a single kingdom, represented on the coinage by the
Latin genitive plural Britanniarum ("of the Britains", often abbreviated
BRITT). At the same time, the claim to the throne of France was dropped
and other titles were omitted from the coinage. GEORGIUS IIII (IV)
DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR George IV, by the Grace
of God, of the Britains King, Defender of the Faith The Roman
numeral "4" is represented by both IIII and IV in different issues. GULIELMUS
IIII DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR William IV, by the
Grace of God, of the Britains King, Defender of the Faith VICTORIA
DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX Victoria, by the
Grace of God, of the Britains Queen, Defender of the Faith VICTORIA
DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX INDIÆ IMPERATRIX
Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the Britains Queen, Defender of the
Faith, Empress of India Queen Victoria was granted the title
"Empress of India" in 1876. EDWARDUS VII DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM
OMNIUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR INDIÆ IMPERATOR Edward VII, by the Grace
of God, of all the Britains King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of
India Edward VII's coins added OMNIUM ("all") after "Britains" to
imply a rule over the British overseas colonies as well as the United
Kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. GEORGIUS V DEI GRATIA
BRITANNIARUM OMNIUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR INDIÆ IMPERATOR George V, by
the Grace of God, of all the Britains King, Defender of the Faith,
Emperor of India GEORGIUS VI DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM OMNIUM REX
FIDEI DEFENSOR INDIÆ IMPERATOR George VI, by the Grace of God, of
all the Britains King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India GEORGIUS
VI DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM OMNIUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR George VI, by
the Grace of God, of all the Britains King, Defender of the Faith
The title "Emperor of India" was relinquished in 1948, after the
independence of India and Pakistan. ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA
BRITANNIARUM OMNIUM REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX Elizabeth II, by the
Grace of God, of all the Britains Queen, Defender of the Faith ELIZABETH
II DEI GRATIA REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX Elizabeth II, by the Grace
of God, Queen, Defender of the Faith The "of all the Britains" was
dropped from the coinage in 1954, and current coins do not name any
realm. Coins in the colonies Some coins made for circulation
in the British colonies are considered part of British coinage because
they have no indication of what country it was minted for and they were
made in the same style as contemporary coins circulating in the United
Kingdom. A three halfpence (1+1⁄2 pence, 1/160 of a pound) coin
was circulated mainly in the West Indies and Ceylon in the starting in
1834. Jamaicans referred to the coin as a "quatty".[45] The half
farthing (1/8 of a penny, 1/1920 of a pound) coin was initially minted
in 1828 for use in Ceylon, but was declared legal tender in the United
Kingdom in 1842.[46] The third farthing (1/12 of a penny, 1/2880 of a pound) coin was minted for use in Malta, starting in 1827..[46] The quarter farthing (1/16 of a penny, 1/3840 of a pound) coin was minted for use in Ceylon starting in 1839.[46] Mottos In
addition to the title, a Latin or French motto might be included,
generally on the reverse side of the coin. These varied between
denominations and issues; some were personal to the monarch, others were
more general. Some of the mottos were: POSUI DEUM ADIUTOREM
MEUM "I have made God my helper". Coins of Henry VII, Henry VIII,
Elizabeth I. Possibly refers to Psalm 52:7, Ecce homo qui non-posuit
Deum adjutorem suum "Behold the man who did not make God his helper".
RUTILANS ROSA SINE SPINA "A dazzling rose without a thorn". Coins of
Henry VIII and Edward VI. Initially on the unsuccessful and very rare
Crown of the Rose of Henry VIII and continued on subsequent small gold
coinage into the reign of Edward VI. POSUIMUS DEUM ADIUTOREM
NOSTRUM "We have made God our helper". Coins of Philip and Mary. The
same as above, but with a plural subject. FACIAM EOS IN GENTEM
UNAM "I shall make them into one nation". Coins of James I, signifying
his desire to unite the English and Scottish nations. Refers to Ezekiel
37:22 in the Vulgate Bible. CHRISTO AUSPICE REGNO "I reign with Christ as my protector". Coins of Charles I.
EXURGAT DEUS DISSIPENTUR INIMICI "May God rise up, may [his] enemies be
scattered". Coins of Charles I, during the Civil War. Refers to Psalm
67:1 in the Vulgate Bible (Psalm 68 in English Bible numbering). PAX QUÆRITUR BELLO "Peace is sought by war". Coins of the Protectorate; personal motto of Oliver Cromwell. BRITANNIA "Britain". Reign of Charles II to George III. Found on pennies and smaller denominations. HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE. "Shamed be he who thinks ill of it." Sovereigns of George III. Motto of the Order of the Garter.
DECUS ET TUTAMEN. "A decoration and protection." Some pound coins of
Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and some crown coins including some
of Victoria and George V. Refers to the inscribed edge as a protection
against the clipping of precious metal, as well as being a complimentary
reference to the monarch and the monarchy. Minting errors reaching circulation Coins with errors in the minting process that reach circulation are often seen as valuable items by coin collectors. In
1983, the Royal Mint mistakenly produced some two pence pieces with the
old wording "New Pence" on the reverse (tails) side, when the design
had been changed from 1982 to "Two Pence". In 2016, a batch of
double-dated £1 coins was released into circulation. These coins had the
main date on the obverse stating '2017', but the micro-engraving having
'2016' on it. it is not known how many exist and are in circulation,
but the amount is fewer than half a million. In June 2009, the
Royal Mint estimated that between 50,000 and 200,000 dateless 20 pence
coins had entered circulation, the first undated British coin to enter
circulation in more than 300 years. It resulted from the accidental
combination of old and new face tooling in a production batch, creating
what is known as a mule, following the 2008 redesign which moved the
date from the reverse (tails) to the obverse (heads) side.[47] See also iconMoney portal Numismatics portal flagUnited Kingdom portal Banknotes of the pound sterling List of British bank notes and coins Mark (money) Non-decimal currency One hundred pounds (British coin) Roman currency Twenty pounds (British coin) References "New
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July 2013. "Royal Mint starts new £1 coin production". TheGuardian.com. 31 March 2016. "£1 Coin | the Royal Mint". "£2 Coin Designs and Specifications | the Royal Mint". "The Great British Coin Hunt 2018 – Quintessentially British a to Z Sterling Silver Coins". "Legal Tender Guidelines | the Royal Mint". "How the Royal Mint is Attempting to Redefine "Legal Tender" for Collector Coins". 27 March 2016. Barker, Simon (14 January 2020). "Are £5 Coins Legal Tender?". CostlyCoins. "The
Queen's Beasts are brought to life in a new bullion coin range", Royal
Mint Blog, 31 March 2016, archived from the original on 2 April 2016,
retrieved 1 April 2016 "Foreign and Commonwealth Office country
profiles: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands". fco.gov.uk.
Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2018. "Foreign
and Commonwealth Office country profiles: British Antarctic Territory".
fco.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Retrieved 9
May 2018. "Foreign and Commonwealth Office country profiles: Tristan
da Cunha". fco.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 30 June 2010.
Retrieved 9 May 2018. "Government of South Georgia & the South Sandwich Islands". Archived from the original on 12 November 2002. The British Antarctic Territory Currency Archived 19 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Antarctic Heritage Trust Quine,
W. V. (1987). Quiddities: An Intermittently Philosophical Dictionary.
Harvard University Press. p. 126. ISBN 9780674042438. "Ask Oxford". Archived from the original on 29 March 2007. ""bob or two" – Google Search". David Jones (7 April 2008). "Two Bob Trouble". Blogspot. Coins with Cromwell's image were first minted in 1656 by Pierre Blondeau. "Rare Edward VIII coin showing profile of monarch's 'better side' goes on display". BT.com. Retrieved 13 October 2019. Chalmers,
Robert (1893). A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London,
UK: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. p. 110. Retrieved 15 November 2014. "Fractional Farthings".
Bingham, John (29 June 2009). "Mix-up at Royal Mint creates dateless
20p pieces worth £50". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2
July 2009. Retrieved 29 June 2009. External links Clayton, Tony: Coins of England and Great Britain Chard, Juliana: Common Names of British Coin Denominations UK Coin Designs and Specifications from the Royal Mint's website Coin Designs — Royal Mint competition designs United Kingdom: Coins Issued and Used – list of all UK coins, with photos and descriptions Old Money Converter – converts £sd to decimal currency Old Money Converter 2 – converts decimal currency to £sd vte Sterling coinage Decimal 1/2p 1p 2p 5p 10p 20p 50p £1 £2 Pre-decimal
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KingdomPre-decimalisation coins of the United Kingdom 1887 Millennium: 2nd millennium Centuries: 18th century 19th century 20th century Decades: 1860s 1870s 1880s 1890s 1900s Years: 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1887 in topic Humanities Archaeology – Architecture – Art Film - Literature – Music - (jazz) By country Australia
– Belgium – Brazil – Bulgaria – Canada – Denmark – France – Germany –
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Africa – Spain – Sweden – United Kingdom – United States – Venezuela Other topics Rail transport – Science – Sports Lists of leaders Sovereign states – State leaders – Territorial governors – Religious leaders Birth and death categories Births – Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments – Disestablishments Works category Works 1887 in various calendarsGregorian calendar 1887 MDCCCLXXXVII Ab urbe condita 2640 Armenian calendar 1336 ԹՎ ՌՅԼԶ Assyrian calendar 6637 Baháʼí calendar 43–44 Balinese saka calendar 1808–1809 Bengali calendar 1294 Berber calendar 2837 British Regnal year 50 Vict. 1 – 51 Vict. 1 Buddhist calendar 2431 Burmese calendar 1249 Byzantine calendar 7395–7396 Chinese calendar 丙戌年 (Fire Dog) 4583 or 4523 — to — 丁亥年 (Fire Pig) 4584 or 4524 Coptic calendar 1603–1604 Discordian calendar 3053 Ethiopian calendar 1879–1880 Hebrew calendar 5647–5648 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 1943–1944 - Shaka Samvat 1808–1809 - Kali Yuga 4987–4988 Holocene calendar 11887 Igbo calendar 887–888 Iranian calendar 1265–1266 Islamic calendar 1304–1305 Japanese calendar Meiji 20 (明治20年) Javanese calendar 1816–1817 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 12 days Korean calendar 4220 Minguo calendar 25 before ROC 民前25年 Nanakshahi calendar 419 Thai solar calendar 2429–2430 Tibetan calendar 阳火狗年 (male Fire-Dog) 2013 or 1632 or 860 — to — 阴火猪年 (female Fire-Pig) 2014 or 1633 or 861 Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1887. 1887
(MDCCCLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian
calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar,
the 1887th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD)
designations, the 887th year of the 2nd millennium, the 87th year of the
19th century, and the 8th year of the 1880s decade. As of the start of
1887, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar,
which remained in localized use until 1923. Contents 1 Events 2 Births 3 Deaths 4 References Events January–March January 11 – Louis Pasteur's anti-rabies treatment is defended in the Académie Nationale de Médecine, by Dr. Joseph Grancher. January 20 The United States Senate allows the Navy to lease Pearl Harbor as a naval base.[1] British emigrant ship Kapunda sinks after a collision off the coast of Brazil, killing 303 with only 16 survivors.[2] January 21 The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) is formed in the United States. Brisbane receives a one-day rainfall of 465 millimetres (18.3 in) (a record for any Australian capital city). January 24 – Battle of Dogali: Abyssinian troops defeat the Italians. January 28
In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana, the largest snowflakes on record
are reported. They are 15 inches (38 cm) wide and 8 inches (20 cm)
thick. Construction work begins on the foundations of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France.[3] February 2 – The first Groundhog Day is observed in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania.[4] February
4 – The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, passed by the 49th United
States Congress, is signed into law by President Grover Cleveland.[5] February 5 – The Giuseppe Verdi opera Otello premieres at La Scala, Milan. February 8 – The Dawes Act, or the General Allotment Act, is enacted in the United States.[6] February 23 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, killing around 2,000 along the coast of the Mediterranean. February 26 – At the Sydney Cricket Ground, George Lohmann becomes the first bowler to take eight wickets, in a Test innings. March 3 – Anne Sullivan begins teaching Helen Keller. March 3: Helen Keller and Sullivan. March 7 – North Carolina State University is established, as North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. March 13 – Chester Greenwood patents earmuffs in the United States. April–June April 1 – The final of the first All-Ireland Hurling Championship is held.[7] April 4 – Argonia, Kansas, elects Susanna M. Salter as the first female mayor in the United States.[8] April 10 (Easter Sunday) – The Catholic University of America is founded in Washington, D.C. April 20 – Occidental College is founded in Los Angeles, California. April 21 – Schnaebele incident: A French/German border incident nearly leads to war between the two countries.[9] May 3 – An earthquake hits Sonora, Mexico. May 9 – Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show opens in London. May 14 – The cornerstone of the new Stanford University, in northern California, is laid (the college opens in 1891).
May 25 – The Hells Canyon massacre begins: 34 Chinese gold miners are
ambushed and murdered in Hells Canyon, Oregon, United States.[10] June 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a U.S. patent for his punched card calculator. June 18 – The Reinsurance Treaty is closed between Germany and Russia. June 21 The British Empire celebrates Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee, marking the 50th year of her reign.[11] Zululand becomes a British colony.
June 23 – The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating
that nation's first national park, Banff National Park.[12] June 23: Banff National Park June 28 – Minot, North Dakota is incorporated as a city. June 29 – The United Retail Federation is established in Brisbane, Australia. July–September July – James Blyth operates the first working wind turbine at Marykirk, Scotland.[13][14] July 1 – Construction of the iron structure of the Eiffel Tower starts in Paris, France.
July 6 – King Kalākaua of Hawai'i is forced by anti-monarchists to sign
the 'Bayonet Constitution', stripping the Hawaiian monarchy of much of
its authority, as well as disenfranchising most native Hawaiians, all
Asians and the poor. July 12 – Odense Boldklub, the Danish football team, is founded as the Odense Cricket Club. July 19 – Dorr Eugene Felt receives the first U.S. patent for his comptometer.[15] July 26
L. L. Zamenhof publishes "Unua Libro" (Dr. Esperanto's International
Language), the first description of Esperanto, the constructed
international auxiliary language. Blackpool F.C. is created in England, U.K.
August – The earliest constituent of the U.S. National Institutes of
Health is established at the Marine Hospital, Staten Island, as the
Laboratory of Hygiene. August 8 – Antonio Guzmán Blanco ends his term as President of Venezuela.
August 13 – Hibernian F.C. of Scotland defeats Preston North End F.C.
of England to win the 'Championship of the World', after the two teams
win the Association football Cup competitions in their respective
countries. September 5 – The Theatre Royal, Exeter, England, burns down, killing 186 people. September 28 – The 1887 Yellow River flood begins in China, killing 900,000 to 2,000,000 people. July 26: Esperanto October–December October 1 – The British Empire takes over Balochistan. October 3 – Florida A&M University opens its doors in Tallahassee, Florida.
October 12 – Yamaha Corporation, the global musical instrument and
audiovisual brand, is founded as Yamaha Organ Manufacturing in
Hamamatsu, Japan.[16] November Results of the Michelson–Morley experiment are published, indicating that the speed of light is independent of motion.
Arthur Conan Doyle's detective character Sherlock Holmes makes his
first appearance, in the novel A Study in Scarlet, published in Beeton's
Christmas Annual. November 3 – The Coimbra Academic Association, the students' union of the University of Coimbra in Portugal, is founded.
November 6 – The Association football club Celtic F.C. is formed in
Glasgow, Scotland, by Irish Marist Brother Walfrid, to help alleviate
poverty in the city's East End by raising money for his charity, the
'Poor Children's Dinner Table'.[17][18] November 8 – Emile Berliner is granted a U.S. patent for the Berliner Gramophone.
November 10 – Louis Lingg, sentenced to be hanged for his alleged role
in the Haymarket affair (a bombing in Chicago on May 4, 1886), kills
himself by dynamite. November 11 – August Spies, Albert Parsons,
Adolph Fischer and George Engel are hanged for inciting riot and murder
in the Haymarket affair. November 13 – Bloody Sunday: Police in London clash with radical and Irish nationalist protesters. December 5 – The International Bureau of Intellectual Property is established. December 25 – Glenfiddich single malt Scotch whisky is first produced. Date unknown Laos and Cambodia are added to French Indochina.
Heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect on the production and
reception of electromagnetic (EM) waves (radio); this is an important
step towards the understanding of the quantum nature of light.
Franz König publishes "Über freie Körper in den Gelenken" in the medical
journal Deutsche Zeitschrift für Chirurgie, describing (and naming) the
disease Osteochondritis dissecans for the first time. Teachers College, later part of Columbia University, is founded.
The first English-language edition of Friedrich Engels' 1844 study of
The Condition of the Working Class in England, translated by Florence
Kelley, is published in New York City. Publication in Barcelona of Enrique Gaspar's El anacronópete, the first work of fiction to feature a time machine.[19] Publication begins of Futabatei Shimei's The Drifting Cloud (Ukigumo), the first modern novel in Japan. The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn is founded.
Nagase Shoten (長瀬商店), predecessor of Japanese cosmetics and toiletry
brand Kao Corporation, is founded in Nihonbashi, Tokyo, Japan.[citation
needed] Tokyo Fire Insurance, predecessor of Sompo Japan Nipponkoa Insurance, is founded.[20] Global construction and real estate development company Skanska is founded in Malmö, Sweden.[21] American financial services company A. G. Edwards is founded by General Albert Gallatin Edwards in St. Louis, Missouri.
Heyl & Patterson Inc., a pioneer in coal unloading equipment, is
founded by Edmund W. Heyl and William J. Patterson in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. The first battery rail car is used on the Royal Bavarian State Railways.[22] Births January–February Miklós Kállay Arthur Rubinstein Edelmiro Julián Farrell Joseph Bech Chico Marx January 1 Wilhelm Canaris, head of German military intelligence in World War II (d. 1945) Max Ritter von Müller, German World War I fighter ace (d. 1918) January 3 – August Macke, German painter (d. 1914)[23] January 10 – Robinson Jeffers, American poet (d. 1962) January 13 – Jorge Chávez, pioneer Peruvian aviator (d. 1910) January 17 – Ola Raknes, Norwegian psychoanalyst, philologist (d. 1975) January 19 – Alexander Woollcott, American intellectual (d. 1943) January 21 – Maude Davis, oldest person in the world (d. 2002) January 22 – Elmer Fowler Stone, American aviator, first United States Coast Guard aviator (d. 1936) January 23 Miklós Kállay, 34th Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1967)[24] Dorothy Payne Whitney, American-born philanthropist, social activist (d. 1968) January 28 – Arthur Rubinstein, Polish-born pianist and conductor (d. 1982)[25] February 3 – Georg Trakl, Austrian poet (d. 1914)[26] February 5 – Corneliu Dragalina, Romanian general (d. 1949) February 6 – Josef Frings, Archbishop of Cologne (d. 1978) February 10 – John Franklin Enders, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1985)[27] February 11 – Ernst Hanfstaengl, German-born pianist, U.S. politician (d. 1975) February 12 – Edelmiro Julián Farrell, Argentine general, 28th President of Argentina (d. 1980) February 17 Joseph Bech, Luxembourgish politician, 2-time Prime Minister of Luxembourg (d. 1975)[28] Leevi Madetoja, Finnish composer (d. 1947)[29] February 20 – Vincent Massey, Governor General of Canada (d. 1967)[30] February 21 – Korechika Anami, Japanese general (d. 1945) March–April Julian Huxley Marc Chagall Gustav Ludwig Hertz Erwin Schrödinger Giovanni Gronchi March 4 – Violet MacMillan, American Broadway theatre actress (d. 1953) March 5 Harry Turner, American professional football player (d. 1914) Heitor Villa-Lobos, Brazilian composer (d. 1959)[31] March 11 – Raoul Walsh, American film director (d. 1980) March 13 – Alexander Vandegrift, American general (d. 1973) March 14 Sylvia Beach, American publisher in Paris (d. 1952)[32] Charles Reisner, American silent actor, film director (d. 1962) March 18 – Aurel Aldea, Romanian general and politician (d. 1949) March 21 – Luís Filipe, Prince Royal of Portugal (d. 1908) March 22 – Chico Marx, American comedian and actor (d. 1961) March 23 Juan Gris, Spanish-born painter, graphic artist (d. 1927)[33] Prince Felix Yusupov, Russian assassin of Rasputin (d. 1967) March 24 – Roscoe Arbuckle, American actor, comedian, film director, and screenwriter (d. 1933) March 25 – Chūichi Nagumo, Japanese admiral (d. 1944) March 25 – Padre Pio, Italian Franciscan Capuchin, mystic and Catholic saint (d. 1968) April 2 – Louise Schroeder, German politician (d. 1957) April 3 – Nishizō Tsukahara, Japanese admiral (d. 1966) April 10 – Bernardo Houssay, Argentine physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971) April 12 – Harold Lockwood, American film actor (d.1918) April 15 Mike Brady, American golfer (d. 1972) Felix Pipes, Austrian tennis player (d. 1983)[34] April 22 – Harald Bohr, Danish mathematician and footballer (d. 1951)[35] April 26 – Kojo Tovalou Houénou, prominent African critic of the French colonial empire in Africa (d. 1936) May– June Saint-John Perse May 2 Vernon Castle, British dancer (d. 1918) Eddie Collins, American baseball player (d. 1951) May 5 – Geoffrey Fisher, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1972) May 11 – Paul Wittgenstein, Austrian-born pianist (d. 1951) May 15 – John H. Hoover, American admiral (d. 1970) May 22 – Jim Thorpe, American athlete (d. 1953) May 23 – C. R. M. F. Cruttwell, English historian (d. 1941)[36] May 25 – Pio of Pietrelcina, Italian saint (d. 1968) May 26 – Paul Lukas, Hungarian-born actor (d. 1971) May 31 – Saint-John Perse, French diplomat, writer and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975)[37] June 3 – Carlo Michelstaedter, Italian philosopher (d. 1910) June 4 – Tom Longboat, Canadian distance runner (d. 1949) June 5 – Ruth Benedict, American anthropologist (d. 1948) June 9 – Emilio Mola, Spanish Nationalist commander (d. 1937) June 13 – André François-Poncet, French politician, diplomat (d. 1978) June 22 Julian Huxley, British biologist (d. 1975) Santiago Amat, Spanish sailor (d. 1982) June 26 – Ganna Walska, Polish opera singer (d. 1984) July– August July 1 Maria Isidia da Conceição, Brazilian supercentenarian Morton Deyo, American admiral (d. 1973) July 3 – Elith Pio, Danish actor (d. 1983)
July 6 – Annette Kellermann, Australian professional swimmer,
vaudeville star, film actress, writer and business owner (d. 1975) July 7 – Marc Chagall, Russian-born painter (d. 1985)[38] July 9 – Samuel Eliot Morison, American historian (d. 1976) July 11 – Nicolae Păiș, Romanian admiral (d. 1952) July 14 – Curtis Shake, American jurist (d. 1978) July 16 – Shoeless Joe Jackson, American baseball player (d. 1951) July 18 – Vidkun Quisling, Norwegian politician, traitor (d. 1945) July 21 – Luis A. Eguiguren, Peruvian historian and politician (d. 1967) July 22 – Gustav Ludwig Hertz, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975) July 28 – Marcel Duchamp, French-born artist (d. 1968)[39] July 29 Sigmund Romberg, Hungarian-born composer (d. 1951) Mamoru Shigemitsu, Japanese diplomat and politician (d. 1957) July 31 – Mitsuru Ushijima, Japanese general (d. 1945) August 3 Rupert Brooke, British war poet (d. 1915)[40] August Wesley, Finnish journalist, trade unionist, and revolutionary (d. ?)[41] August 4 – Peter Bocage, American jazz musician (d. 1967) August 6 – Oliver Wallace, English-born film composer (d. 1963) August 12 – Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961) August 13 – Julius Freed, American inventor, banker (d. 1952) August 17 Emperor Charles I of Austria (d. 1922) Marcus Garvey, African American publisher, entrepreneur and Pan Africanist (d. 1940)[42] August 22 – Walter Citrine, 1st Baron Citrine, British trade unionist (d. 1983) August 24 – Harry Hooper, American baseball player (d. 1974) August 27 – Julia Sanderson, American actress (d. 1975) September–October Avery Brundage Le Corbusier Chiang Kai-shek September 1 – Blaise Cendrars, Swiss writer (d. 1961)[43] September 3 – Frank Christian, American jazz musician (d. 1973) September 5 – Irene Fenwick, American actress (d. 1936) September 8 – Jacob L. Devers, American general (d. 1979) September 9 – Alf Landon, American Republican politician, presidential candidate (d. 1987) September 10 – Giovanni Gronchi, 3rd President of Italy (d. 1978)
September 12 – Yusif Vazir Chamanzaminli, Azerbaijani statesman, writer
and claimed "core author" of novel Ali and Nino (d. in Gulag 1943) September 13 Lancelot Holland, British admiral (d. 1941) Leopold Ružička, Croatian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976) Frank Gray (researcher), Physicist and researcher, known for the Gray code (d. 1969) September 16 – Nadia Boulanger, French composer and composition teacher (d. 1979)[44] September 26 – William Barnard Rhodes-Moorhouse, British aviator, first airman to receive the Victoria Cross (d. 1915) September 28 – Avery Brundage, American sports official (d. 1975)[45] October 2 – Violet Jessop, Argentine-born British RMS Titanic survivor (d. 1971) October 4 – Charles Alan Pownall, American admiral, 3rd Military Governor of Guam (d. 1975) October 5 – René Cassin, French judge, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1976) October 6 – Le Corbusier, Swiss architect (d. 1965)[46] October 8 – Huntley Gordon, Canadian-born actor (d. 1956) October 13 – Jozef Tiso, Prime Minister of Slovakia (d. 1947) October 14 – Ernest Pingoud, Finnish composer (d. 1942) October 18 – Takashi Sakai, Japanese general (d. 1946) October 20 – Prince Yasuhiko Asaka, Japanese prince (d. 1981) October 22 – John Reed, American journalist (d. 1920)[47] October 23 – Lothar Rendulic, Austrian-born German general (d. 1971) October 24 – Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, Queen Consort of Spain (d. 1969) October 28 – Herb Byrne, Australian rules footballer (d. 1959) October 31 – Chiang Kai-shek, 1st President of the Republic of China (d. 1975) November - December Bernard Montgomery Boris Karloff Erich von Manstein November 1 – L. S. Lowry, English painter (d. 1976)[48] November 6 – Walter Johnson, American baseball player (d. 1946) November 10 – Arnold Zweig, German writer (d. 1968)[49] November 11 Walther Wever, German general, pre-World War II Luftwaffe commander (d. 1936) Roland Young, English actor (d. 1953) November 14 – Amadeo de Souza Cardoso, Portuguese painter (d. 1918) November 15 – Georgia O'Keeffe, American painter (d. 1986)[50] November 17 – Bernard Montgomery, British World War II commander (d. 1976) November 19 – James B. Sumner, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955) November 23 Boris Karloff, British horror film actor (d. 1969) Henry Moseley, English physicist (d. 1915) November 24 – Erich von Manstein, German field marshal (d. 1973) November 25 – Nikolai Vavilov, Russian and Soviet agronomist, botanist and geneticist (d. 1943)[51] November 27 – Masaharu Homma, Japanese general (d. 1946) November 28 Jacobo Palm, Curaçao-born composer (d. 1982) Ernst Röhm, German Nazi SA leader (d. 1934) November 30 – Beatrice Kerr, Australian swimmer, diver, and aquatic performer (d. 1971) December 3 – Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, former Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1990) December 6 – Lynn Fontanne, British-born actress (d. 1983) December 12 – Kurt Atterberg, Swedish composer (d. 1974) December 13 – Alvin Cullum York, American World War I hero (d. 1964) December 16 – Adone Zoli, Italian politician, 35th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1960) December 22 – Srinivasa Aaiyangar Ramanujan, Indian mathematician (d. 1920) December 25 – Conrad Hilton, American hotelier (d. 1979) December 26 – Arthur Percival, British general (d. 1966) Deaths January–June January 12 – Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh, British politician (b. 1818) February 19 – Eduard Douwes Dekker, Dutch writer (b. 1820)[52] February 26 – Anandi Gopal Joshi, first Indian woman doctor (b. 1865) February 27 – Alexander Borodin, Russian composer (b. 1833)[53] March 4 – Catherine Huggins, British actor, singer, director and manager (b. 1821) March 8 – Henry Ward Beecher, American clergyman, reformer (b. 1813) March 24 Jean-Joseph Farre, French general and statesman (b. 1816) Justin Holland, American musician, civil rights activist (b. 1819) Ivan Kramskoi, Russian painter (b. 1837) March 28 – Ditlev Gothard Monrad, Danish politician (b. 1811)[54] April 10 – John T. Raymond, American actor (b. 1836) April 19 – Henry Hotze, Swiss-American Confederate propagandist (b. 1833) April 23 – John Ceiriog Hughes, Welsh poet (b. 1832)[55] May 7 – C. F. W. Walther, German-American theologian (b. 1811) May 8 – Aleksandr Ulyanov, Russian revolutionary, brother of V. I. Lenin (b. 1866) May 14 – Lysander Spooner, American philosopher and abolitionist (b. 1808) June 4 – William A. Wheeler, 19th Vice President of the United States (b. 1819)
June 10 – Richard Lindon, British inventor of the rugby ball, the
India-rubber inflatable bladder and the brass hand pump for the same (b.
1816) July–December Gustav Kirchhoff July 8 – John Wright Oakes, English landscape painter (b. 1820) July 17 – Dorothea Dix, American social activist (b. 1802) July 25 – John Taylor, American religious leader (b. 1808) August 8 – Alexander William Doniphan, American lawyer, soldier (b. 1808) August 16 Webster Paulson, English civil engineer (b. 1837) Sir Julius von Haast, German-born New Zealand geologist (b. 1822) August 19 Alvan Clark, American telescope manufacturer (b. 1804) Spencer Fullerton Baird, American naturalist and museum curator (b. 1823) August 20 – Jules Laforgue, French poet (b. 1860)[56] September 12 – August von Werder, Prussian general (b. 1808) October 12 – Dinah Craik, English novelist and poet (b. 1826)[57] October 17 – Gustav Kirchhoff, German physicist (b. 1824) October 21 – Bernard Jauréguiberry, French admiral, statesman (b. 1815) October 26 – Hugo von Kirchbach, Prussian general (d. 1809) October 31 – Sir George Macfarren, British composer and musicologist (b. 1813) November 2 Jenny Lind, Swedish soprano (b. 1820)[58] Alfred Domett, 4th Premier of New Zealand (b. 1811)[59] November 8 – Doc Holliday, American gambler, gunfighter (b. 1851)[60] November 19 – Emma Lazarus, American poet (b. 1859)[61] November 28 – Gustav Fechner, German experimental psychologist (b. 1801) December 5 – Richard Lyons, 1st Viscount Lyons, British diplomat (b. 1817) December 14 – William Garrow Lettsom, British diplomat, mineralogist and spectroscopist (b. 1805) December 23 – Adolphus Frederick Alexander Woodford, British parson (b. 1821) Date unknown Antoinette Nording, Swedish perfume entrepreneur (b. 1814) References United States Naval Institute (1930). Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute. The Institute. p. 406. "The Loss of the Kapunda: Details of the Disaster". Belfast Morning News. February 23, 1887. p. 5. Retrieved March 18, 2016. Gaston
Tissandier (1889). The Eiffel Tower: A Description of the Monument, Its
Construction, Its Machinery, Its Object, and Its Utility. With an
Autographic Letter of M. Gustave Eiffel. Illustrated. Sampson Low,
Marston, Searle, & Rivington. p. 27. Dana Facaros; Michael Pauls (1982). New York & the Mid-Atlantic States. Regnery Gateway. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-89526-856-3. Serial set (no.0-3099). 1891. p. 47. Sister
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Trevor J. (2004). "Blyth, James (1839–1906)". Oxford Dictionary of
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Kathryn (April 9, 2011). "HG Wells or Enrique Gaspar: Whose time
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Claude (December 15, 1981). The Young Vincent Massey. University of
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978-1-4426-3371-1. Béhague, Gerard (1994). Heitor Villa-Lobos: The
Search for Brazil's Musical Soul. Institute of Latin American Studies,
University of Texas at Austin. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-292-70823-5. Kellner, Bruce (1988). A Gertrude Stein Companion: Content with the Example. Greenwood Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-313-25078-1. Brion, Marcel (1958). Modern Painting; from Impressionism to Abstract Art. Thames and Hudson. p. 95. "Fritz Felix PIPES - Olympic Tennis | Austria". International Olympic Committee. June 14, 2016. Bochner, Salomon (1992). Collected Papers of Salomon Bochner. American Mathematical Society. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-8218-7054-9. Ellis,
Geoffrey (2007). "Cruttwell, Charles Robert Mowbray Fraser". Oxford
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Prize Winners, 1901-1990. Oryx Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-89774-599-4. Anthony Mason (July 5, 2004). Marc Chagall. Gareth Stevens Publishing LLLP. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8368-5649-1. Marcel Brion (1958). Modern Painting; from Impressionism to Abstract Art. Thames and Hudson. p. 94. John Lehmann (1980). Rupert Brooke: His Life and His Legend. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-297-77757-1. August Wesley - Born Glorious Marcus
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Northen Magill (1958). Masterplots: Cyclopedia of world authors; seven
hundred fifty three novelists, poets, playwrights from the world's fine
literature. Salem Press. p. 777. Overture: The Magazine of the Baltimore Symphony. Baltimore Symphony Orchestra Association. 1979. p. 20. Jon
Bartley Stewart (2009). Kierkegaard and His Danish Contemporaries:
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(Ceiriog; 1832-1887), poet". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National
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(July 1, 2019). Essential Novelists - Dinah Craik: The Ideals of English
Middle-class Life. Tacet Books. p. 3. ISBN 978-85-7777-325-1. Cecilia
Jorgensen; Jens Jorgensen (2003). Chopin and the Swedish Nightingale:
The Life and Times of Chopin and a Romance Unveiled 154 Years Later.
Icons of Europe. p. 89. ISBN 978-2-9600385-0-7. Claudia Orange (December 21, 2015). The Story of a Treaty. Bridget Williams Books. p. 269. ISBN 978-1-927131-34-3. Jon
Tuska; Vicki Piekarski; Paul J. Blanding (1984). The Frontier
Experience: A Reader's Guide to the Life and Literature of the American
West. McFarland. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-89950-118-5. Emma Lazarus (1888). The Poems of Emma Lazarus. Houghton, Mifflin. p. 1. Charles
III (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948) is King of
the United Kingdom and 14 other Commonwealth realms.[fn 4] He acceded to
the throne on 8 September 2022 upon the death of his mother, Elizabeth
II. He was the longest-serving heir apparent in British history and, at
the age of 73, is the oldest person to ascend the British throne. Charles
was born in Buckingham Palace during the reign of his maternal
grandfather, King George VI. Charles was three when his mother ascended
the throne in 1952, making him the heir apparent. He was made Prince of
Wales in 1958 and his investiture was held in 1969. He was educated at
Cheam and Gordonstoun schools, as was his father, Prince Philip, Duke of
Edinburgh. Charles later spent six months at the Timbertop campus of
Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia. After earning a Bachelor
of Arts degree from the University of Cambridge, Charles served in the
Air Force and Navy from 1971 to 1976. In 1981, he married Lady Diana
Spencer, with whom he had two sons, William and Harry. In 1996, the
couple divorced after they had each engaged in well-publicised
extramarital affairs. In 2005, Charles married his long-time partner,
Camilla Parker Bowles. As Prince of Wales, Charles undertook
official duties on behalf of Queen Elizabeth II. He founded the youth
charity the Prince's Trust in 1976, sponsors the Prince's Charities, and
is a patron, president, or a member of over 400 other charities and
organisations. He has advocated for the conservation of historic
buildings and the importance of architecture in society.[3] A critic of
modernist architecture, Charles worked on the creation of Poundbury, an
experimental new town based on his architectural tastes. He is also an
author or co-author of over 20 books. An environmentalist, Charles
supported organic farming and action to prevent climate change during
his time as the manager of the Duchy of Cornwall estates, earning him
awards and recognition from environmental groups.[4] He is also a
prominent critic of the adoption of genetically modified food. Charles's
support for homeopathy and other alternative medicine has been the
subject of criticism. THE FOLLOWING STATEMENT IS ISSUED BY THE PRESS SECRETARY TO THE QUEEN Further
details of The Queen's Golden Jubilee Weekend have been announced
today, with celebrations ranging from street parties to a unique pageant
along The Mall. The Jubilee Weekend, taking place 1-4 June, will
comprise a four-day festival of events culminating in a procession in
central London commemorating the past fifty years of the Queen's reign,
and the cultural diversity achieved both within the UK and across the
Commonwealth. Saturday, 1 June The Golden Jubilee celebrations
will start on the evening of Saturday 1 June with a classical concert
including major international stars in the gardens of Buckingham Palace,
watched by an audience of 12,000 drawn by public ballot. It will
also be seen by many thousands on large video screens specially erected
in London and other towns and cities across the United Kingdom to
enable as many people as possible to share in the celebrations. Sunday, 2 June This
day will be more of a day of reflection focussed on Jubilee church
services and bell-ringing across the nation and in the Commonwealth,
where The Queen is also Head of State of 15 other countries apart from
the United Kingdom. Monday, 3 June Monday will see celebration
parties and bonfires. Communities will be united in festivity through
the staging of garden and street parties as well as other celebrations,
including the lighting of beacons and bonfires. The Queen's
Golden Jubilee Weekend Trust, a charity, is working with the
organisation Golden Jubilee Summer Party which, in partnership with
local authorities, church groups, public bodies, broadcasters, youth
organisations, business, charitable and other organisations from all
parts of the community, will promote participation in the Golden Jubilee
and a sense of pride and unity. At lunchtime on Monday, 3 June,
and to coincide with a BBC programme of Music Live, it is hoped that
church bells, gongs, and other forms of music making will be sounded to
signal the start of the Festival celebrations. These will range from simple gatherings of friends to mass events in public parks and on village greens. In
a replica of events at the last Golden Jubilee, that of Queen Victoria
in 1887, a chain of beacons and bonfires will be lit across the UK from
Lands End to John O'Groats and from Great Yarmouth to Holyhead, at the
Arctic Circle and in Antartica as well as in the Commonwealth, as a
climax to the day's festivities. The beacons will form a chain across
the UK. The major informal festivities on Monday, 3 June start
with a rock and pop concert in the gardens of Buckingham Palace in the
evening, again watched by an audience of 12,000 drawn from the public
and broadcast through screens nationwide as well as on television. Afterwards,
The Queen will light a special beacon on the Mall outside the gates of
Buckingham Palace. This will be followed by a spectacular "Son et
Lumiere Fireworks" programme in the vicinity of Buckingham Palace. Tuesday, 4 June Tuesday, 4 June will start with a State Procession from Buckingham Palace to St Paul's Cathedral for a Thanksgiving Service. The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh will use the Coronation Gold Coach to proceed to St Paul's. After
the service at St Paul's and a lunch at The Guildhall hosted by the
City, The Queen and Duke of Edinburgh will return to Horse Guards where
they will watch a National Festival of processions down the Mall. The Mall Pageant will include: * a carnival theme * youth bands and performers * Commonwealth procession * commemoration of the Queen's fifty years with key personalities, achievers and stars of the reign * a flypast by the RAF and Concorde as The Queen and The Duke of Edinburgh appear on the balcony of Buckingham Palace 20th century Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "19XX" redirects here. For the videogame, see 19XX: The War Against Destiny. For a timeline of 20th-century events, see Timeline of the 20th century. For other uses, see 20th century (disambiguation). Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century20th century21st century Timelines 19th century20th century21st century State leaders 19th century20th century21st century Decades 1900s1910s1920s1930s1940s 1950s1960s1970s1980s1990s Categories: Births – Deaths Establishments – Disestablishments vte The Blue Marble, Earth as seen from Apollo 17 in December 1972. The photograph was taken by LMP Harrison Schmitt. The second half of the 20th century saw humanity's first space exploration. The 20th (twentieth) century began on January 1, 1901 (MCMI), and ended on December 31, 2000 (MM).[1] The 20th century was dominated by significant events that defined the modern era: the sixth mass extinction, Spanish flu pandemic, World War I and World War II, nuclear weapons, nuclear power and space exploration, nationalism and decolonization, the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts, and technological advances. These reshaped the political and social structure of the globe. Additional themes include intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology; poverty reduction and rising standards of living, world population growth, awareness of environmental degradation, ecological extinction;[2][3] and the beginning of the Digital Revolution. Automobiles, airplanes and the use of home appliances became common, as did video and audio recording. Great advances in power generation, communication, and medical technology allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life. The repercussions of the World Wars, the Cold War, and globalization crafted a world where people are more united than any previous time in human history, as exemplified by the establishment of international law, international aid, and the United Nations. The Marshall Plan—which spent $13 billion ($110 billion in 2021 U.S. dollars)[4] to rebuild the economies of post-war nations—launched "Pax Americana". Throughout the latter half of the 20th century, the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union created enormous tensions around the world which manifested in various armed proxy regional conflicts and the omnipresent danger of nuclear proliferation. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 after the collapse of its European alliance was heralded by capitalists as the end of communism, though by the century's end roughly one in six people on Earth lived under communist rule, mostly in China which was rapidly rising as an economic and geopolitical power. It took over two hundred thousand years of modern human history and 6 million years of human evolution for the world's population to reach 1 billion in 1804.[5] During the 20th century, world population had reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927, and by late 2000, the global population had reached 6 billion, with over half in East, South and Southeast Asia.[6][7][8] Global literacy averaged 80%. Penicillin and other medical breakthroughs, combined with the World Health Organization's global vaccination campaigns, yielded unprecedented results, helping to eradicate smallpox and other diseases responsible for more human deaths than all wars and natural disasters combined; smallpox now only existed in labs.[9][10] Machines came to be used in all areas of production, feeding increasingly intricate supply chains that allowed mankind for the first time to be constrained not by how much it could produce, but by peoples' willingness to consume. Trade improvements greatly expanded upon the limited set of food-producing techniques used since the Neolithic period, multiplying the diversity of foods available and boosting the quality of human nutrition. Until the early 19th century, life expectancy from birth was about thirty in most populations; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 years for the first time in history, with over half achieving 70 or more years (three decades longer than a century earlier).[11] Overview Main article: 20th-century events See also: Timeline of the 20th century Map of the British Empire (as of 1910). At its height, it was the largest empire in history. Chronological history The 20th (twentieth) century began on January 1, 1901,[1] and ended on December 31, 2000.[12] It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium. Unlike most century years, the year 2000 was a leap year, and the second century leap year in the Gregorian calendar after 1600. The century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. Nationalism became a major political issue in the world in the 20th century, acknowledged in international law along with the right of nations to self-determination, official decolonization in the mid-century, and related regional conflicts. The century saw a major shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and medicine. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization. Terms like nationalism, globalism, environmentalism, ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. Scientific discoveries, such as the theory of relativity and quantum physics, profoundly changed the foundational models of physical science, forcing scientists to realize that the universe was more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes (or fears) at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the Space Shuttle. Horses and other pack animals, every society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. These developments were made possible by the exploitation of fossil fuel resources, which offered energy in an easily portable form, but also caused concern about pollution and long-term impact on the environment. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon. World powers and empires in 1914, just before the First World War. (The Austro-Hungarian flag should be shown instead of the Austrian Empire's one) Mass media, telecommunications, and information technology (especially computers, paperback books, public education, and the Internet) made the world's knowledge more widely available. Public health improvements led to global life expectancy increasing from 35 years to 65 years. Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time. However, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the imperial system. For the first time in human history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized and cooperative world. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, violence has seen an unprecedented decline.[13] The world also became more culturally homogenized than ever with developments in transportation and communications technology, popular music and other influences of Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a truly global economy by the end of the 20th century. Summary At the beginning of the period, the British Empire was the world's most powerful nation,[14] having acted as the world's policeman for the past century. Technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of trench warfare in Western Europe, and up to 22 million dead, the powers that had formed the Triple Entente (France, Britain, and Russia, later replaced by the United States and joined by Italy and Romania) emerged victorious over the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria). In addition to annexing many of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion. The Russian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Tsarist regime of Nicholas II and the onset of the Russian Civil War. The victorious Bolsheviks then established the Soviet Union, the world's first communist state. Anachronous world map showing member states of the League of Nations, the first global international body of governance created to prevent war after World War I, during its 26-year interwar period history. Fascism, a movement which grew out of post-war angst and which accelerated during the Great Depression of the 1930s, gained momentum in Italy, Germany, and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in World War II, sparked by Nazi Germany's aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbors. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into a technologically advanced industrial power and, along with Germany and Italy, formed the Axis powers. Japan's military expansionism in East Asia and the Pacific Ocean brought it into conflict with the United States, culminating in a surprise attack which drew the US into World War II. Ukraine, early days of the 1941 Nazi invasion. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people between 1941 and 1945,[15] almost half of all World War II deaths. After some years of dramatic military success, Germany was defeated in 1945, having been invaded by the Soviet Union and Poland from the East and by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and France from the West. After the victory of the Allies in Europe, the war in Asia ended with the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan by the US, the first nation to develop nuclear weapons and the only one to use them in warfare. In total, World War II left some 60 million people dead. The mushroom cloud of the detonation of Little Boy, the first nuclear attack in history, on 6 August 1945 over Hiroshima, igniting the nuclear age with the international security dominating thread of mutual assured destruction in the latter half of the 20th century. Following World War II, the United Nations, successor to the League of Nations, was established as an international forum in which the world's nations could discuss issues diplomatically. It enacted resolutions on such topics as the conduct of warfare, environmental protection, international sovereignty, and human rights. Peacekeeping forces consisting of troops provided by various countries, with various United Nations and other aid agencies, helped to relieve famine, disease, and poverty, and to suppress some local armed conflicts. Europe slowly united, economically and, in some ways, politically, to form the European Union, which consisted of 15 European countries by the end of the 20th century. After the war, Germany was occupied and divided between the Western powers and the Soviet Union. East Germany and the rest of Eastern Europe became Soviet puppet states under communist rule. Western Europe was rebuilt with the aid of the American Marshall Plan, resulting in a major post-war economic boom, and many of the affected nations became close allies of the United States. With the Axis defeated and Britain and France rebuilding, the United States and the Soviet Union were left standing as the world's only superpowers. Allies during the war, they soon became hostile to one another as their competing ideologies of communism and democratic capitalism proliferated in Europe, which became divided by the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall. They formed competing military alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) which engaged in a decades-long standoff known as the Cold War. The period was marked by a new arms race as the USSR became the second nation to develop nuclear weapons, which were produced by both sides in sufficient numbers to end most human life on the planet had a large-scale nuclear exchange ever occurred. Mutually assured destruction is credited by many historians as having prevented such an exchange, each side being unable to strike first at the other without ensuring an equally devastating retaliatory strike. Unable to engage one another directly, the conflict played out in a series of proxy wars around the world—particularly in China, Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Afghanistan—as the USSR sought to export communism while the US attempted to contain it. The technological competition between the two sides led to substantial investment in research and development which produced innovations that reached far beyond the battlefield, such as space exploration and the Internet. The international community grew in the second half of the century significantly due to a new wave of decolonization, particularly in Africa. Most of the newly independent states, were grouped together with many other so called developing countries. Developing countries gained attention, particularly due to rapid population growth, leading to a record world population of nearly 7 billion people by the end of the century. In the latter half of the century, most of the European-colonized world in Africa and Asia gained independence in a process of decolonization. Meanwhile, globalization opened the door for several nations to exert a strong influence over many world affairs. The US's global military presence spread American culture around the world with the advent of the Hollywood motion picture industry and Broadway, jazz, rock music, and pop music, fast food and hippy counterculture, hip-hop, house music, and disco, as well as street style, all of which came to be identified with the concepts of popular culture and youth culture.[16][17][18] After the Soviet Union collapsed under internal pressure in 1991, most of the communist governments it had supported around the world were dismantled—with the notable exceptions of China, North Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Laos—followed by awkward transitions into market economies. Nature of innovation and change Due to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the light bulb, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by supertankers, airliners, motorways, radio, television, air conditioning, antibiotics, nuclear power, frozen food, computers and microcomputers, the Internet, and mobile telephones affected people's quality of life across the developed world. The quantity of goods consumed by the average person expanded massively. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development—much of it motivated by the Cold War arms race—drove changes in everyday life. Social change Martin Luther King Jr., an African American civil rights leader (Washington, August 1963) At the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in most societies. Although the Atlantic slave trade had ended in the 19th century, movements for equality for non-white people in the white-dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. By the end of the 20th century, in many parts of the world, women had the same legal rights as men, and racism had come to be seen as unacceptable, a sentiment often backed up by legislation.[19] When the Republic of India was constituted, the disadvantaged classes of the caste system in India became entitled to affirmative action benefits in education, employment and government. Attitudes toward pre-marital sex changed rapidly in many societies during the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Attitudes towards homosexuality also began to change in the later part of the century. [20][21] Earth at the end of the 20th century Economic growth and technological progress had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the 20th century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left in new nation states. The world was undergoing its second major period of globalization; the first, which started in the 18th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a dominant position, a major part of the process was Americanization. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations were rapidly integrating with the world economy. Terrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were pressing global issues. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. Disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as the West Nile virus continued to spread. Malaria and other diseases affected large populations. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa. Based on research done by climate scientists, the majority of the scientific community consider that in the long term environmental problems pose a serious threat.[22] One argument is that of global warming occurring due to human-caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels.[23] This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the Kyoto treaty, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions. World population increased from about 1.6 billion people in 1901 to 6.1 billion at the century's end.[24][25] Wars and politics Main articles: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919), Diplomatic history of World War I, International relations (1919–1939), Diplomatic history of World War II, Cold War, and International relations since 1989 Map of territorial changes in Europe after World War I (as of 1923). The number of people killed during the century by government actions was in the hundreds of millions. This includes deaths caused by wars, genocide, politicide and mass murders. The deaths from acts of war during the two world wars alone have been estimated at between 50 and 80 million.[citation needed] Political scientist Rudolph Rummel estimated 262,000,000 deaths caused by democide, which excludes those killed in war battles, civilians unintentionally killed in war and killings of rioting mobs.[26] According to Charles Tilly, "Altogether, about 100 million people died as a direct result of action by organized military units backed by one government or another over the course of the century. Most likely a comparable number of civilians died of war-induced disease and other indirect effects."[27] It is estimated that approximately 70 million Europeans died through war, violence and famine between 1914 and 1945.[28] The Armenian, Syriac and Greek genocide were the systematic destruction, mass murder and expulsion of the Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks in the Ottoman Empire during World War I, spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).[29][30] Rising nationalism and increasing national awareness were among the many causes of World War I (1914–1918), the first of two wars to involve many major world powers including Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Russia/USSR, the British Empire and the United States. At the time, it was said by many to be the "war to end all wars". During World War I, in the Russian Revolution of 1917, 300 years of Tsarist reign were ended and the Bolsheviks, under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, established the world's first Communist state. The end of World War I saw the collapse of the central powers, the German Empire, the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, the Kingdom of Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire into several independent sovereign states throughout Central Europe, the Balkans, and the Middle East. After gaining political rights in the United States and much of Europe in the first part of the century, and with the advent of new birth control techniques, women became more independent throughout the century. Industrial warfare greatly increased in its scale and complexity during the first half of the 20th century. Notable developments included chemical warfare, the introduction of military aviation and the widespread use of submarines. The introduction of nuclear warfare in the mid-20th century marked the definite transition to modern warfare. The Revolutions of 1917-1923 occurred during and World War I inspired by the Russian Revolution which saw many political changes in Europe and in Asia. The Great Depression in the 1930s led to the rise of Fascism and Nazism in Europe. A violent civil war broke out in Spain in 1936 when General Francisco Franco rebelled against the Second Spanish Republic. Many consider this war as a testing battleground for World War II, as the fascist armies bombed some Spanish territories. World War II (1939–1945) became the deadliest conflict in human history involving primarily the axis, Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and the Empire of Japan against the allies, China, France, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Many atrocities occurred, particularly the Holocaust killing approximately 11 million victims. It ended with the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. The two world wars led to efforts to increase international cooperation, notably through the founding of the League of Nations after World War I, and its successor, the United Nations, after World War II. The creation of Israel in 1948, a Jewish state in the Middle East, at the end of the British Mandate for Palestine, fueled many conflicts between Israelis and Palestinians in addition toregional conflicts. These were also influenced by the vast oil fields in many of the other countries of the predominantly Arab region. After the Soviet Union's involvement in World War II, communism became a major force in global politics, notably in Eastern Europe, China, Indochina and Cuba, where communist parties gained near-absolute power. Richard Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev aboard the USS Sequoia, June 19, 1973 The Cold War (1947–1989) involved an arms race and increasing competition between the two major players in the world: the Soviet Union and the United States. This competition included the development and improvement of nuclear weapons and space technology. This led to the proxy wars with the Western bloc, including wars in Korea (1950–1953) and Vietnam (1957–1975). The Soviet authorities caused the deaths of millions of their own citizens to eliminate domestic opposition.[31] More than 18 million people passed through the Gulag, with a further 6 million being exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[32] Nationalist movements in the Indian subcontinent led to the independence and partition of Jawaharlal Nehru-led India and Muhammad Ali Jinnah-led Pakistan, although would lead to conflicts between the two nations such as border and territorial disputes. After a long period of civil wars and conflicts with western powers, China's last imperial dynasty ended in 1912. The resulting republic was replaced, after another civil war, by the communist People's Republic of China in 1949. At the end of the 20th century, though still ruled by a communist party, China's economic system had largely transformed to capitalism. Mahatma Gandhi's nonviolence and Indian independence movement against the British Empire influenced many political movements around the world, including the civil rights movement in the United States, and freedom movements in South Africa against apartheid challenging racial segregation The end of colonialism led to the independence of many African and Asian countries. During the Cold War, many of these aligned with the United States, the USSR, or China for defense. Hong Kong, under British administration from 1842 to 1997, is one of the original Four Asian Tigers. Mao Zedong's radical policy of modernization leads to the Great Chinese Famine causing the death of tens of millions of Chinese peasants between 1959 and 1962. It is thought to be the largest famine in human history.[33] The Vietnam War caused two million deaths, changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered global North-South relations.[34] The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan caused million of deaths and contributed to the dissolution of the Soviet Union along with complete political turmoil in Afghanistan[33] The revolutions of 1989 released Eastern and Central Europe from Soviet control. Soon thereafter, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia dissolved; the former having many states seceded and the latter violently over several years, into successor states, with many rife with ethnic nationalism. Meanwhile, East Germany and West Germany were reunified in 1990. The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, culminating in the deaths of hundreds of civilian protesters, were a series of demonstrations in and near Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China. Led mainly by students and intellectuals, the protests occurred in a year that saw the collapse of a number of communist governments around the world. European integration began in earnest in the 1950s, and eventually led to the European Union, a political and economic union that comprised 15 countries at the end of the 20th century. Culture and entertainment Main article: 20th century in literature I and the Village, 1911, by Marc Chagall, a modern painter. As the century began, Paris was the artistic capital of the world, where both French and foreign writers, composers and visual artists gathered. By the middle of the century New York City had become the artistic capital of the world. Theater, films, music and the media had a major influence on fashion and trends in all aspects of life. As many films and much music originate from the United States, American culture spread rapidly over the world. 1953 saw the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, an iconic figure of the century. Visual culture became more dominant not only in films but in comics and television as well. During the century a new skilled understanding of narrativist imagery was developed. Computer games and internet surfing became new and popular form of entertainment during the last 25 years of the century. In literature, science fiction, fantasy (with well-developed fictional worlds, rich in detail), and alternative history fiction gained popularity. Detective fiction gained popularity in the interwar period. In the United States in 1961 Grove Press published Tropic of Cancer a novel by Henry Miller redefining pornography and censorship in publishing in America. Music Main article: 20th-century music Elvis Presley in 1956, a leading figure of rock & roll and rockabilly. The invention of music recording technologies such as the phonograph record, and dissemination technologies such as radio broadcasting, massively expanded the audience for music. Prior to the 20th century, music was generally only experienced in live performances. Many new genres of music were established during the 20th century. Igor Stravinsky revolutionized classical composition. In the 1920s, Arnold Schoenberg developed the twelve-tone technique, which became widely influential on 20th-century composers. In classical music, composition branched out into many completely new domains, including dodecaphony, aleatoric (chance) music, and minimalism. Tango was created in Argentina and became extremely popular in the rest of the Americas and Europe. Blues and jazz music became popularized during the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s in the United States. Bebop develops as a form of jazz in the 1940s. Country music develops in the 1920s and 1930s in the United States. Blues and country went on to influence rock and roll in the 1950s, which along with folk music, increased in popularity with the British Invasion of the mid-to-late 1960s. Rock soon branched into many different genres, including folk rock, heavy metal, punk rock, and alternative rock and became the dominant genre of popular music. This was challenged with the rise of hip hop in the 1980s and 1990s. Other genres such as house, techno, reggae, and soul all developed during the latter half of the century and went through various periods of popularity. Synthesizers began to be employed widely in music and crossed over into the mainstream with new wave music in the 1980s. Electronic instruments have been widely deployed in all manners of popular music and has led to the development of such genres as house, synth-pop, electronic dance music, and industrial. Film, television and theatre Charlie Chaplin in his 1921 film The Kid, with Jackie Coogan. See also: History of film Film as an artistic medium was created in the 20th century. The first modern movie theatre was established in Pittsburgh in 1905.[35] Hollywood developed as the center of American film production. While the first films were in black and white, technicolor was developed in the 1920s to allow for color films. Sound films were developed, with the first full-length feature film, The Jazz Singer, released in 1927. The Academy Awards were established in 1929. Animation was also developed in the 1920s, with the first full-length cel animated feature film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937. Computer-generated imagery was developed in the 1980s, with the first full-length CGI-animated film Toy Story released in 1995. Julie Andrews, Harry Belafonte, Humphrey Bogart, Marlon Brando, James Cagney, Charlie Chaplin, Sean Connery, Tom Cruise, James Dean, Robert De Niro, Harrison Ford, Clark Gable, Cary Grant, Audrey Hepburn, Katharine Hepburn, Bruce Lee, Marilyn Monroe, Paul Newman, Jack Nicholson, Al Pacino, Sidney Poitier, Meryl Streep, Elizabeth Taylor, James Stewart, Jane Fonda and John Wayne are among the most popular Hollywood stars of the 20th century. Madhubala, Jean-Paul Belmondo, Karel Roden, Sean Connery, Marcello Mastroianni, Salah Zulfikar, Marlene Dietrich, Brigitte Bardot, Omar Sharif, Catherine Deneuve, Alain Delon, Soad Hosny, Fernanda Montenegro, Sophie Marceau, Fatima Rushdi, Amitabh Bachchan, Jean Gabin, Toshiro Mifune, Shoukry Sarhan, Lars Mikkelsen, Sophia Loren, Youssef Wahbi, Claudia Cardinale, Klaus Kinski, Gérard Depardieu, Max von Sydow, Faten Hamama, Rutger Hauer and Toni Servillo are among the most popular movie stars of the 20th century. Sergei Eisenstein, D. W. Griffith, Cecil B. DeMille, Frank Capra, Howard Hawks, John Ford, Orson Welles, Martin Scorsese, John Huston, Alfred Hitchcock, Akira Kurosawa, Spike Lee, Ingmar Bergman, Federico Fellini, Walt Disney, Stanley Kubrick, Steven Spielberg, Ridley Scott, Woody Allen, Quentin Tarantino, James Cameron, William Friedkin, Ezz El-Dine Zulficar and George Lucas are among the most important and popular filmmakers of the 20th century. In theater, sometimes referred to as Broadway in New York City, playwrights such as Eugene O'Neill, Samuel Beckett, Edward Albee, Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams introduced innovative language and ideas to the idiom. In musical theater, figures such as Rodgers and Hammerstein, Lerner and Loewe, Mohammed Karim, and Irving Berlin had an enormous impact on both film and the culture in general. Modern dance is born in America as a 'rebellion' against centuries-old European ballet. Dancers and choreographers Alvin Ailey, Isadora Duncan, Vaslav Nijinsky, Ruth St. Denis, Mahmoud Reda, Martha Graham, José Limón, Doris Humphrey, Merce Cunningham, and Paul Taylor re-defined movement, struggling to bring it back to its 'natural' roots and along with Jazz, created a solely American art form. Alvin Ailey is credited with popularizing modern dance and revolutionizing African-American participation in 20th-century concert dance. His company gained the nickname "Cultural Ambassador to the World" because of its extensive international touring. Ailey's choreographic masterpiece Revelations is believed to be the best known and most often seen modern dance performance. See also: History of Television Video games Ralph Baer's Magnavox Odyssey, the first video game console, released in 1972. Main article: History of video games Video games—due to the great technological steps forward in computing since the second post-war period—are one of the new forms of entertainment that emerged in the 20th century alongside films. While already conceptualized in the 1940s–50s, video games only emerged as an industry during the 1970s, and then exploded into social and cultural phenomena such as the golden age of arcade video games, with notable releases such as Taito's Space Invaders, Atari's Asteroids, Nintendo's Donkey Kong, Namco's Pac-Man and Galaga, Konami's Frogger, Capcom's 1942 and Sega's Zaxxon,[36] the worldwide success of Nintendo's Super Mario Bros.[37] and the release in the 1990s of Sony PlayStation console, the first one to break the record of 100 million units sold, with Gran Turismo being the system's best selling video game.[38] Video game design becomes a discipline. Some game designers in this century stand out for their work, such as Shigeru Miyamoto, Hideo Kojima, Sid Meier and Will Wright. Art and architecture The Empire State Building is an iconic building of the 1930s. Main article: 20th-century art The art world experienced the development of new styles and explorations such as fauvism, expressionism, Dadaism, cubism, de stijl, surrealism, abstract expressionism, color field, pop art, minimal art, lyrical abstraction, and conceptual art. The modern art movement revolutionized art and culture and set the stage for both Modernism and its counterpart postmodern art as well as other contemporary art practices. Art Nouveau began as a form of architecture and design but fell out of fashion after World War I. The style was dynamic and inventive but unsuited to the depression of the Great War. In Europe, modern architecture departed from the decorated styles of the Victorian era. Streamlined forms inspired by machines became commonplace, enabled by developments in building materials and technologies. Before World War II, many European architects moved to the United States, where modern architecture continued to develop. The automobile increased the mobility of people in the Western countries in the early-to-mid-century, and in many other places by the end of the 20th century. City design throughout most of the West became focused on transport via car. Sport The popularity of sport increased considerably—both as an activity for all, and as entertainment, particularly on television. The modern Olympic Games, first held in 1896, grew to include tens of thousands of athletes in dozens of sports. The FIFA World Cup was first held in 1930, and was held every four years after World War II. Science Main article: 20th century in science See also: Big Science Mathematics The pioneer of computer science, Alan Turing Multiple new fields of mathematics were developed in the 20th century. In the first part of the 20th century, measure theory, functional analysis, and topology were established, and significant developments were made in fields such as abstract algebra and probability. The development of set theory and formal logic led to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Later in the 20th century, the development of computers led to the establishment of a theory of computation.[39] Computationally-intense results include the study of fractals[40] and a proof of the four color theorem in 1976.[41] Physics New areas of physics, like special relativity, general relativity, and quantum mechanics, were developed during the first half of the century. In the process, the internal structure of atoms came to be clearly understood, followed by the discovery of elementary particles. It was found that all the known forces can be traced to only four fundamental interactions. It was discovered further that two forces, electromagnetism and weak interaction, can be merged in the electroweak interaction, leaving only three different fundamental interactions. Discovery of nuclear reactions, in particular nuclear fusion, finally revealed the source of solar energy. Radiocarbon dating was invented, and became a powerful technique for determining the age of prehistoric animals and plants as well as historical objects. Astronomy A much better understanding of the evolution of the universe was achieved, its age (about 13.8 billion years) was determined, and the Big Bang theory on its origin was proposed and generally accepted. The age of the Solar System, including Earth, was determined, and it turned out to be much older than believed earlier: more than 4 billion years, rather than the 20 million years suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1862.[42] The planets of the Solar System and their moons were closely observed via numerous space probes. Pluto was discovered in 1930 on the edge of the solar system, although in the early 21st century, it was reclassified as a dwarf planet instead of a planet proper, leaving eight planets. No trace of life was discovered on any of the other planets orbiting the Sun (or elsewhere in the universe), although it remained undetermined whether some forms of primitive life might exist, or might have existed, somewhere in the Solar System. Extrasolar planets were observed for the first time. Agriculture Wheat yields greatly increased from the Green Revolution in the world's least developed countries. Norman Borlaug fathered the Green Revolution, the set of research technology transfer initiatives occurring between 1950 and the late 1960s that increased agricultural production in parts of the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s, and is often credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation. Biology Genetics was unanimously accepted and significantly developed. The structure of DNA was determined in 1953 by James Watson,[43][44] Francis Crick,[43][44] Rosalind Franklin[44] and Maurice Wilkins,[43][44] following by developing techniques which allow to read DNA sequences and culminating in starting the Human Genome Project (not finished in the 20th century) and cloning the first mammal in 1996. The role of sexual reproduction in evolution was understood, and bacterial conjugation was discovered. The convergence of various sciences for the formulation of the modern evolutionary synthesis (produced between 1936 and 1947), providing a widely accepted account of evolution. Medicine A stamp commemorating Alexander Fleming. His discovery of penicillin changed the world of medicine by introducing the age of antibiotics. Placebo-controlled, randomized, blinded clinical trials became a powerful tool for testing new medicines. Antibiotics drastically reduced mortality from bacterial diseases. A vaccine was developed for polio, ending a worldwide epidemic. Effective vaccines were also developed for a number of other serious infectious diseases, including influenza, diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus, measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), chickenpox, hepatitis A, and hepatitis B. Epidemiology and vaccination led to the eradication of the smallpox virus in humans. X-rays became a powerful diagnostic tool for a wide spectrum of diseases, from bone fractures to cancer. In the 1960s, computerized tomography was invented. Other important diagnostic tools developed were sonography and magnetic resonance imaging. Development of vitamins virtually eliminated scurvy and other vitamin-deficiency diseases from industrialized societies. New psychiatric drugs were developed. These include antipsychotics for treating hallucinations and delusions, and antidepressants for treating depression. The role of tobacco smoking in the causation of cancer and other diseases was proven during the 1950s (see British Doctors Study). New methods for cancer treatment, including chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and immunotherapy, were developed. As a result, cancer could often be cured or placed in remission. The development of blood typing and blood banking made blood transfusion safe and widely available. The invention and development of immunosuppressive drugs and tissue typing made organ and tissue transplantation a clinical reality. New methods for heart surgery were developed, including pacemakers and artificial hearts. Cocaine and heroin were widely illegalized after being found to be addictive and destructive. Psychoactive drugs such as LSD and MDMA were discovered and subsequently prohibited in many countries. Prohibition of drugs caused a growth in the black market drug industry, and expanded enforcement led to a larger prison population in some countries.[45] Contraceptive drugs were developed, which reduced population growth rates in industrialized countries, as well as decreased the taboo of premarital sex throughout many western countries. The development of medical insulin during the 1920s helped raise the life expectancy of diabetics to three times of what it had been earlier. Vaccines, hygiene and clean water improved health and decreased mortality rates, especially among infants and the young. Notable diseases An influenza pandemic, Spanish Flu, killed anywhere from 17 to 100 million people between 1918 and 1919. A new viral disease, called the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, or HIV, arose in Africa and subsequently killed millions of people throughout the world. HIV leads to a syndrome called Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, or AIDS. Treatments for HIV remained inaccessible to many people living with AIDS and HIV in developing countries, and a cure has yet to be discovered. Because of increased life spans, the prevalence of cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and other diseases of old age increased slightly. Changes in food production, along with sedentary lifestyles due to labor-saving devices and the increase in home entertainment, contributed to an "epidemic" of obesity, at first in the rich countries, but by the end of the 20th century spreading to the developing world. Energy and the environment Oil field in California, 1938. The first modern oil well was drilled in 1848 by Russian engineer F.N. Semyonov, on the Apsheron Peninsula north-east of Baku. Fossil fuels and nuclear power were the dominant forms of energy sources. Widespread use of petroleum in industry—both as a chemical precursor to plastics and as a fuel for the automobile and airplane—led to the geopolitical importance of petroleum resources. The Middle East, home to many of the world's oil deposits, became a center of geopolitical and military tension throughout the latter half of the century. (For example, oil was a factor in Japan's decision to go to war against the United States in 1941, and the oil cartel, OPEC, used an oil embargo of sorts in the wake of the Yom Kippur War in the 1970s). The increase in fossil fuel consumption also fueled a major scientific controversy over its effect on air pollution, global warming, and global climate change. Pesticides, herbicides and other toxic chemicals accumulated in the environment, including in the bodies of humans and other animals. Population growth and worldwide deforestation diminished the quality of the environment. In the last third of the century, concern about humankind's impact on the Earth's environment made environmentalism popular. In many countries, especially in Europe, the movement was channeled into politics through Green parties. Increasing awareness of global warming began in the 1980s, commencing decades of social and political debate. Engineering and technology First flight of the Wright brothers' Wright Flyer on December 17, 1903, in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina; Orville piloting with Wilbur running at wingtip. One of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, electronics, engineering, travel, medicine, and war. Basic home appliances including washing machines, clothes dryers, furnaces, exercise machines, dishwashers, refrigerators, freezers, electric stoves and vacuum cleaners became popular from the 1920s through the 1950s. Radios were popularized as a form of entertainment during the 1920s, followed by television during the 1950s. The first airplane, the Wright Flyer, was flown in 1903. With the engineering of the faster jet engine in the 1940s, mass air travel became commercially viable. The assembly line made mass production of the automobile viable. By the end of the 20th century, billions of people had automobiles for personal transportation. The combination of the automobile, motor boats and air travel allowed for unprecedented personal mobility. In western nations, motor vehicle accidents became the greatest cause of death for young people. However, expansion of divided highways reduced the death rate. The triode tube was invented. Air conditioning of buildings became common New materials, most notably stainless steel, Velcro, silicone, teflon, and plastics such as polystyrene, PVC, polyethylene, and nylon came into widespread use for many various applications. These materials typically have tremendous performance gains in strength, temperature, chemical resistance, or mechanical properties over those known prior to the 20th century. Aluminum became an inexpensive metal and became second only to iron in use. Thousands of chemicals were developed for industrial processing and home use. Digital computers came into use Space exploration Photo of American astronaut Buzz Aldrin during the first moonwalk in 1969, taken by Neil Armstrong. The relatively young aerospace engineering industries rapidly grew in the 66 years after the Wright brothers' first flight. The Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union gave a peaceful outlet to the political and military tensions of the Cold War, leading to the first human spaceflight with the Soviet Union's Vostok 1 mission in 1961, and man's first landing on another world—the Moon—with America's Apollo 11 mission in 1969. Later, the first space station was launched by the Soviet space program. The United States developed the first reusable spacecraft system with the Space Shuttle program, first launched in 1981. As the century ended, a permanent crewed presence in space was being founded with the ongoing construction of the International Space Station. In addition to human spaceflight, uncrewed space probes became a practical and relatively inexpensive form of exploration. The first orbiting space probe, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Over time, a massive system of artificial satellites was placed into orbit around Earth. These satellites greatly advanced navigation, communications, military intelligence, geology, climate, and numerous other fields. Also, by the end of the 20th century, uncrewed probes had visited or flown by the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and various asteroids and comets, with Voyager 1 being the farthest manufactured object from Earth at 23,5 billion kilometers away from Earth as of 6 September 2022, and together with Voyager 2 both carrying The Voyager Golden Record containing sounds, music and greetings in 55 languages as well as 116 images of nature, human advancement, space and society. The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, greatly expanded our understanding of the Universe and brought brilliant images to TV and computer screens around the world. The Global Positioning System, a series of satellites that allow land-based receivers to determine their exact location, was developed and deployed.[46] Religion See also: List of 20th-century religious leaders 1900s – A number of related revival movements mark the start of Pentecostalism. 1904 — Aleister Crowley dictates The Book of the Law, the foundational text of Thelema. 1922 – The Soviet Union establishes a doctrine of state atheism. 1930 — Wallace Fard Muhammad founds the Nation of Islam. The Seventh Lambeth Conference allows for the possibility of birth control within Anglicanism, the first example of a modern Christian church supporting such a position.[citation needed] 1940s — Wicca is formalized by Gerald Gardner and Doreen Valiente. 1950s — Sayyid Qutb articulates Qutbism, a violent variety of Islamism that would later become foundational to jihadist ideology. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi begins to teach Transcendental Meditation. 1953 — L. Ron Hubbard founds the Church of Scientology, which has a unique cosmology based on science fiction and his older system of Dianetics. 1956 — B. R. Ambedkar launches the Dalit Buddhist movement. 1960 – The charismatic movement starts within Anglicanism, quickly spreading to other Christian sects. 1962–65 – The Second Vatican Council is held, resulting in significant changes in the Catholic Church. 1970s — New Age beliefs and practices are popularized. 1979 – In Shia Islam, the Islamic Revolution establishes a theocratic state within Iran. 1988 — Al-Qaeda, a network of Islamic extremists, is founded among Arab members of the Afghan mujahideen. It engages in a number of terror attacks throughout the 1990s, leading up to the September 11 attacks in 2001. 1999 — Falun Gong, a Chinese new religious movement dating to the early 1990s, begins to be persecuted by the Chinese government. Economics The Great Depression was a worldwide economic slowdown that lasted throughout the early 1930s. The Soviet Union implemented a series of five-year plans for industrialization and economic development. Most countries abandoned the gold standard for their currency. The Bretton Woods system involved currencies being pegged to the United States dollar; after the system collapsed in 1971 most major currencies had a floating exchange rate. The 1970s energy crisis occurred when the Western world, particularly the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, faced substantial petroleum shortages as well as elevated prices. The two worst crises of this period were the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis, when, respectively, the Yom Kippur War and the Iranian Revolution triggered interruptions in Middle Eastern oil exports. See also icon Modern history portal 20th-century inventions Death rates in the 20th century Infectious disease in the 20th century Modern art Short twentieth century Timelines of modern history List of 20th-century women artists List of notable 20th-century writers List of 20th-century American writers by birth year List of battles 1901–2000 List of stories set in a future now past References "Twentieth Century's Triumphant Entry". The New York Times. January 1, 1901. p. 1. Retrieved 2021-01-03. Wilson, E.O., The Future of Life (2002) (ISBN 0-679-76811-4). See also: Leakey, Richard, The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind, ISBN 0-385-46809-1 "The Sixth Extinction – The Most Recent Extinctions". Archived from the original on 2015-12-18. Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved January 1, 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series. 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ISBN 978-0471543978. OCLC 23823042. Devaney, Robert L. (1998). A first course in chaotic dynamical systems : theory and experiment (6. printing. ed.). Reading, Mass. [u.a.]: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-55406-9. Kenneth Appel; Wolfgang Haken (26 July 1976). "Every Planar Map is Four-Colorable". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. Contemporary Mathematics. 98. doi:10.1090/conm/098. ISBN 9780821851036. S2CID 8735627. Thomson, Sir William (1862). "On the Age of the Sun's Heat". Macmillan's Magazine. 5: 288–293. "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962". NobelPrize.org. Nobel Media AB. Retrieved November 5, 2011. "James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin". Science History Institute. June 2016. Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018. Engel, Pamela (April 23, 2014). "Watch How Quickly The War On Drugs Changed America's Prison Population". Business Insider. "Global Positioning System History". 2012-10-27. Retrieved 2018-02-07. Sources IPCC AR5 WG1 (2013), Stocker, T.F.; et al. (eds.), Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group 1 (WG1) Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5th Assessment Report (AR5), Cambridge University Press. Climate Change 2013 Working Group 1 website. IPCC TAR WG2 (2001). McCarthy, J. J.; Canziani, O. F.; Leary, N. A.; Dokken, D. J.; White, K. S. (eds.). Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521807685. Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2019. (pb: 0521015006) Bozarslan, Hamit [in French]; Duclert, Vincent [in French]; Kévorkian, Raymond H. (2015). Comprendre le génocide des arméniens—1915 à nos jours [Understanding the Armenian genocide: 1915 to the present day] (in French). Tallandier [fr]. ISBN 979-10-210-0681-2. Suny, Ronald Grigor (2015). "They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6558-1. Further reading Brower, Daniel R. and Thomas Sanders. The World in the Twentieth Century (7th Ed, 2013) CBS News. People of the century. Simon and Schuster, 1999. ISBN 0-684-87093-2 Grenville, J. A. S. A History of the World in the Twentieth Century (1994). online free Hallock, Stephanie A. The World in the 20th Century: A Thematic Approach (2012) Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online Pindyck, Robert S. "What we know and don’t know about climate change, and implications for policy." Environmental and Energy Policy and the Economy 2.1 (2021): 4–43. online Pollard, Sidney, ed. Wealth and Poverty: an Economic History of the 20th Century (1990), 260 pp; global perspective online free Stearns, Peter, ed. The Encyclopedia of World History (2001) UNESCO (February 28, 2008). "The Twentieth Century". History of Humanity. Vol. VII. Routledge. p. 600. ISBN 978-0-415-09311-8. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to 20th century. Wikimedia Commons has media related to 20th century. The 20th Century Research Project (archived 26 February 2012) Slouching Towards Utopia: The Economic History of the Twentieth Century (archived 6 February 2012) Discovering Literature: 20th century at the British Library MillenniaCenturiesDecadesYears vte Decades and years 20th century 18th century ← 19th century ← ↔ → 21st century → 22nd century 1890s 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900s 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910s 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920s 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930s 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940s 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 vte Centuries and millennia Millennium Century BC (BCE) 4th 40th 39th 38th 37th 36th 35th 34th 33rd 32nd 31st 3rd 30th 29th 28th 27th 26th 25th 24th 23rd 22nd 21st 2nd 20th 19th 18th 17th 16th 15th 14th 13th 12th 11th 1st 10th 9th 8th 7th 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st AD (CE) 1st 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 2nd 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 3rd 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th vte History of the 20th century EventsTimeline Topics Art theatreChristianityLiteratureMusic classicalPhilosophyScience 1910s1920s1930s1940s1950s1960s1970s1980s1990sSociety Lists State leaders 1901–19501951–2000EarthquakesLunar eclipsesSolar eclipsesVolcanic eruptions | | | | | |